C (letter): Difference between revisions
imported>Ro Thorpe m (→Use in English) |
mNo edit summary |
||
| (40 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown) | |||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{subpages}} | {{subpages}}{{TOC|right}} | ||
''For other uses, see [[C|the C disambiguation page]].'' | ''For other uses, see [[C|the C disambiguation page]].'' | ||
| Line 8: | Line 8: | ||
==Use in English== | ==Use in English== | ||
{{:English_spellings/Catalogs/Masterlist}} | {{:English_spellings/Catalogs/Masterlist}} | ||
Though very common in English, '''c''' has (as also in French, Portuguese, Catalan and | Though very common in English, '''c''' has (as also in French, Portuguese, Catalan and most varieties of Spanish) no sound of its own, instead sounding either like a '''k''' (= like a '''q'''), or like an '''s'''; or, thirdly, preceding '''h''' to give the '''ch''' sound, which sounds like '''tsh''' (though there are other words in which '''ch''' simply sounds like '''sh''', and yet others where it sounds like '''k'''). | ||
The '''k''' sound is in the back of the throat, as in '''kíng''', or as '''q''' in '''quêen''': '''cát'''; the '''s''' sound is a hiss, as in that word, '''híss''' (where it is, typically, doubled) and in '''sô''': '''cïrcle''' (in which the second '''c''' has the '''k''' sound: *sërkl). | The '''k''' sound is in the back of the throat, as in '''kíng''', or as '''q''' in '''quêen''': '''cát'''; the '''s''' sound is a hiss, as in that word, '''híss''' (where it is, typically, doubled) and in '''sô''': '''cïrcle''' (in which the second '''c''' has the '''k''' sound: *sërkl; the accents show stress and pronunciation: see [[English spellings]]). The '''ch''' sound can be heard twice in '''chürch''' and at the beginning of '''choôse''' (*tshûz), but not at all in '''machìne''' (*məshêen). | ||
{{:English spellings/Accents}} | |||
The letter '''c''' is actually more common than '''k''' - and much more common than '''q''' - for the throaty sound. It occurs before back vowels '''a''', '''o''' and '''u''': '''cát, còme, còunt, cûre, côast''', and liquid consonants '''l''' and '''r''': '''clíck, crúst, clàss'''. In '''crícket, thícket, rácket, wícker, bícker, lócker, dócker, crácker, brácken, bráckish, lácking''', the '''k''' is needed to show the throaty sound of the second '''c''': without the '''k''', the '''c''' would sound like an '''s''' because of the following '''e''' or '''i'''. Also, -'''ck''' is more common at the end of words as in '''déck''' and '''clóck'''. But after '''í''', '''c''' is quite common finally: '''plástic, pánic, eléctric, frenétic, mûsic'''. Compare '''síc''' ''thus'' with '''síck''' ''ill''. Also: '''mâniác, lîlac, ålmanác, blóc''' | The letter '''c''' is actually more common than '''k''' - and much more common than '''q''' - for the throaty sound. It occurs before back vowels '''a''', '''o''' and '''u''': '''cát, còme, còunt, cûre, côast''', and liquid consonants '''l''' and '''r''': '''clíck, crúst, clàss'''. In '''crícket, thícket, rácket, wícker, bícker, lócker, dócker, crácker, brácken, bráckish, lácking''', the '''k''' is needed to show the throaty sound of the second '''c''': without the '''k''', the '''c''' would sound like an '''s''' because of the following '''e''' or '''i'''. Also, -'''ck''' is more common at the end of words as in '''déck''' and '''clóck'''. But after '''í''', '''c''' is quite common finally: '''plástic, pánic, eléctric, frenétic, mûsic'''. Compare '''síc''' ''thus'' with '''síck''' ''ill''. Also: '''mâniác, lîlac, ålmanác, blóc''' (no words do not end in -ec or -uc). | ||
The hissing '''s''' sound occurs before front vowel letters '''i, e''' and '''y''': '''cïrcle, céntre, cŷcle, cínema, nîce, Lâcy, Trâcy, pâcy''', and also initially in the combinations '''caê'''- and '''coê'''-: '''Caêsar''', '''caêcum''', '''Caêlum''', '''coênobitic''', '''coêlacanth''' (all sêe-). For the hissing sound to remain before a back vowel, a cedilla is used in '''Bàrça''' (cf. '''Barcelôna''', where no cedilla is needed), '''curaçào, soûpçon, façàde''' (this word is now often written without the cedilla, especially in AmE) and '''Provençàl''' (*Próvón-sàl). | |||
The famous rule "'''i''' before '''e''' except after '''c'''" applies only to the '''ê''' sound (and not to '''èi''' as in '''vèin'''): '''cêiling, decêit, recêive, recêipt''' (-êet). And then, not only after '''c''', as it happens: '''sêize, wêir, wêird, Nêil, Kêith''' and '''Shêila'''. Compare '''vèil, vèin, fèint''' ''pretend'' (= '''fâint''' ''swoon''), '''dèign''' ''condescend'' (= '''Dâne''' ''Denmark''), '''rèign''' ''queen'' (= '''râin''' ''wet''), and also '''théir''' ''they'' (= '''thére''' ''here''). | The famous rule "'''i''' before '''e''' except after '''c'''" applies only to the '''ê''' sound (and not to '''èi''' as in '''vèin'''): '''cêiling, decêit, recêive, recêipt''' (-êet). And then, not only after '''c''', as it happens: '''sêize, wêir, wêird, Nêil, Kêith''' and '''Shêila'''. Compare '''vèil, vèin, fèint''' ''pretend'' (= '''fâint''' ''swoon''), '''dèign''' ''condescend'' (= '''Dâne''' ''Denmark''), '''rèign''' ''queen'' (= '''râin''' ''wet''), and also '''théir''' ''they'' (= '''thére''' ''here''). | ||
Quite often, especially at the beginning of a word, '''sc''' is used for the hissing sound before front vowels: '''scêne, | Quite often, especially at the beginning of a word, '''sc''' is used for the hissing sound before front vowels: '''scêne, scîence, scént, scíssors, scîon, scintílla, scímitar, scŷthe, sciática''' (*sŷáttica); but '''scéptic''' is the British spelling of AmE '''sképtic''' (cf. '''séptic''' ''wound''). | ||
In the suffix -'''ésce''': '''acquiésce, effervésce''', and pronounced '''z''' in '''créscent''' (*crézzənt). | In the suffix -'''ésce''': '''acquiésce, effervésce''', and pronounced '''z''' in '''créscent''' (*crézzənt). | ||
| Line 25: | Line 25: | ||
There are silent '''c'''s in '''indî'''c'''t, Tû'''c'''son''' and '''Conné'''c'''ticut'''. | There are silent '''c'''s in '''indî'''c'''t, Tû'''c'''son''' and '''Conné'''c'''ticut'''. | ||
'''ch''' most typically sounds like '''t''' plus '''sh''' – not usually like '''sh''' alone. French, German and Portuguese do not have this sound, although German writes it in foreign words as ‘tsch’. Spanish does have it, whence '''mácho''' (*mátcho: it is sometimes mispronounced ‘macko’, as if Italian). '''ch''' is common in English, which has taken French words like '''chàrm''' ('charme' in French) and modified the sound of the French '''ch''', which has the English '''sh''' sound: '''chéck, choôse, chânge, Ríchard''' and also '''côach, bêach, chêek, chéss, chêer, cheŵ, escheŵ''' (which has a rare, separately sounded, '''s''' before it). Inside a word, there is often a superfluous '''t''' before '''ch''': '''ítch, dítch, cátch, mátch, bùtcher''' - but never after '''r''': '''tŏrch, lürch, àrch''', except in names: '''Pàrtch''' ''person'' = '''pàrch''' ''tongue''. And '''Tchaîkovsky''' has the '''T''' initially. | |||
This sound is spelt '''Cz''', however, in '''Czéch''' ''Republic'' (= '''chéck''' ''determine'' = BrE '''chéque''' ''cash'') and '''Czechoslovákia'''. | |||
In some words more recently taken from French, '''ch''' sounds exactly like '''sh''' in '''shê''': '''machìne, nìche, pastìche, '''BrE''' moustàche, '''AmE''' moústáche, párachute, créche, Chicàgo''' and '''nónchalant''', in which AmE French-style silences the '''t''': *nonshalàn. | In some words more recently taken from French, '''ch''' sounds exactly like '''sh''' in '''shê''': '''machìne, nìche, pastìche, '''BrE''' moustàche, '''AmE''' moústáche, párachute, créche, Chicàgo''' and '''nónchalant''', in which AmE French-style silences the '''t''': *nonshalàn. | ||
In other words, mostly from Greek, '''ch''' is pronounced '''k''': '''chord, chémist, psŷchê, dichótomy, schême, àrchive, synécdochê, schoôner'''. | In other words, mostly from Greek, '''ch''' is pronounced '''k''': '''chord, chémist, psŷchê, dichótomy, schême, àrchive, synécdochê, schoôner''', and '''Mîchael''', which rhymes with '''cŷcle'''. | ||
In various Celtic words '''ch''' can sound like the Arabic '''kh''', e.g. '''lóch, Dócherty''' - but many non-Celts simply make the '''k''' sound here. And in the variant spelling '''Dóherty''', the '''h''' sounds like itself alone - or like '''kh''' or '''k'''. The same sound occurs in initial position in the Hebrew/Yiddish word '''chùtzpah''', where many English-speakers pronounce it as '''h'''. | |||
'''Åuchinleck''' in Scotland is pronounced *Áffleck. | |||
In yacht, '''ch''' is silent: *yót. | In yacht, '''ch''' is silent: *yót. | ||
| Line 40: | Line 40: | ||
'''ci''' before a vowel can have the '''sh''' sound: '''atrôcious''' (*atrôshəss), '''précious''' (*préshəss), '''magícian''' (*məjíshən), '''Confûcius''' (*Kənfyoôshəss) - but never the '''zh''' sound, which is restricted to '''si''': '''confûsion''' (*cənfyûzhən). | '''ci''' before a vowel can have the '''sh''' sound: '''atrôcious''' (*atrôshəss), '''précious''' (*préshəss), '''magícian''' (*məjíshən), '''Confûcius''' (*Kənfyoôshəss) - but never the '''zh''' sound, which is restricted to '''si''': '''confûsion''' (*cənfyûzhən). | ||
In the musical term '''acciacatûra''', from Italian, '''cci''' is pronounced with the 'ch' sound. | In the musical term '''acciacatûra''', from Italian, '''cci''' is pronounced with the '''ch''' sound. | ||
Double '''c''' has the '''k''' sound before back vowels (but for this, '''ck''' is far more common medially and finally): '''accŏrd, tobácco, accommodâtion, áccolâde, sóccer'''. | Double '''c''' has the '''k''' sound before back vowels (but for this, '''ck''' is far more common medially and finally): '''accŏrd, tobácco, accommodâtion, áccolâde, sóccer'''. | ||
''' | '''cc''' has the '''x''' sound before '''i''' and '''e''': '''áccent, accépt, áccident, fláccid, áccess, succêed, succéss, succínct, váccine, Óccitan'''. | ||
'''Åltrincham''' is pronounced as if spelt *Åltringham. | |||
The second '''c''' in '''concërto'''/'''concérto''' is most often pronounced as '''sh''', though it may also have the original Italian pronunciation, '''ch'''. | |||
'''c''' begins consonant clusters: '''accépt''' (x sound, while '''accŏrd''' has no cluster, only the k sound), '''acknówledge, táckle, clûe, ácmê, acquîre, cróss, áct'''. | '''c''' begins consonant clusters: '''accépt''' (x sound, while '''accŏrd''' has no cluster, only the k sound), '''acknówledge, táckle, clûe, ácmê, ácnê, acquîre, cróss, áct'''. | ||
==='''Mc'''- and '''Mac'''-, etc.=== | ==='''Mc'''- and '''Mac'''-, etc.=== | ||
In names beginning '''Mc'''- and '''Mac'''- before another '''c''', '''k''' or '''g''', the '''c''' is silent, while the sometimes invisible '''a''' is in most cases pronounced with the schwa sound. It is as if the '''c''' itself were being pronounced schwa: '''McGóugh''' (*MəGóff), '''McCúrry, McCŏrmack, McKénzie''' = '''Mackénzie'''. | In names beginning '''Mc'''- and '''Mac'''- before another '''c''', '''k''' or '''g''', the '''c''' is silent, while the sometimes invisible '''a''' is in most cases pronounced with the schwa sound. It is as if the '''c''' itself were being pronounced schwa: '''McGóugh''' (*MəGóff), '''McCúrry, McCŏrmack, McKénzie''' = '''Mackénzie'''. This is sometimes the case before '''W''': '''McWhínney''' *MəWhínney. | ||
Either '''Mác''' or '''Mc''' can be stressed in a smaller number of names: '''MácIlvoy, McEnroe'''. In the latter the stressed syllable is an invisible ''' | Either '''Mác''' or '''Mc''' can be stressed in a smaller number of names: '''MácIlvoy, McEnroe'''. In the latter the stressed syllable is an invisible '''á''': *Máckənrô. | ||
The '''c''' is always hard, even when not followed by a capital or '''k''': '''McIntosh''' = '''MácIntosh''' = '''Máckintosh'''. | The '''c''' is always hard, even when not followed by a capital or '''k''': '''McIntosh''' = '''MácIntosh''' = '''Máckintosh'''. | ||
When capitalising, the '''c''' is best kept small: '''McINTOSH'''. | When capitalising, the '''c''' is best kept small: '''McINTOSH'''. | ||
'''nc''' has the '''ng''' sound of the '''n''' in '''úncle''' and accidentally in '''páncake'''. | '''nc''' has the '''ng''' sound of the '''n''' in '''úncle''' and accidentally in '''páncake'''. In '''Åltrincham''', the '''c''' itself is not pronounced, merely modifying the '''n''', as if the spelling were *Åltringham. | ||
Final '''c''' is | Final '''c''' is rare, except for the suffix -'''ic''': '''plástic, jurássic, elástic, chrónic''' (k-) '''mánic'''; and '''Éric, chìc''' (sh-), '''Cádillac, Póntiac, Potômac''' and in abbreviations: '''tálc, mác'''. But *téc is '''téch'''. | ||
To keep the '''c''' hard and prevent it becoming a hiss, a '''k''' is added to -'''ic''' before -'''ing''' and -'''ed''': '''frólicking, pánicking, políticking, tráfficked'''. | To keep the '''c''' hard and prevent it becoming a hiss, a '''k''' is added to -'''ic''' before -'''ing''' and -'''ed''': '''frólicking, pánicking, políticking, tráfficked'''. | ||
| Line 66: | Line 68: | ||
After two vowel letters, '''k''' alone is always used: '''toòk, spoôk, sêek, roòk, wêek, lêak''' ''liquid'' = '''lêek''' ''vegetable'', '''wêek, spêak, breâk, shrìêk'''. | After two vowel letters, '''k''' alone is always used: '''toòk, spoôk, sêek, roòk, wêek, lêak''' ''liquid'' = '''lêek''' ''vegetable'', '''wêek, spêak, breâk, shrìêk'''. | ||
==Use in Turkish== | |||
In [[Turkish language|Turkish]], ''c'' is pronounced like an English ''j'' (IPA [dʒ]), and ''ç'' like an English ''ch'' ([tʃ]). | |||
==Scientific uses== | |||
*C is the symbol for the chemical element [[carbon]]. | |||
*''c'': speed of light in vacuum | |||
==Computer character encoding== | ==Computer character encoding== | ||
| Line 74: | Line 84: | ||
The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital C is 195 for lowercase c is 131. | The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital C is 195 for lowercase c is 131. | ||
The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are "<tt>&#67;</tt>" and "<tt>&#99;</tt>" for upper and lower case respectively. | The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are "<tt>&#67;</tt>" and "<tt>&#99;</tt>" for upper and lower case respectively.[[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]] | ||
Latest revision as of 16:00, 23 July 2024
For other uses, see the C disambiguation page.
C, c is a letter of the Latin alphabet. It is the third letter of most variants, being placed after B and before D, as is the case for instance in the English alphabet. Its English name is pronounced [ˈsiː], like see and sea, and is occasionally spelt out as cee.
C is also the Roman numeral representing the number 100.
Use in English
| A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Use in English | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Alphabetical word list | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Retroalphabetical list | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Common misspellings |
Though very common in English, c has (as also in French, Portuguese, Catalan and most varieties of Spanish) no sound of its own, instead sounding either like a k (= like a q), or like an s; or, thirdly, preceding h to give the ch sound, which sounds like tsh (though there are other words in which ch simply sounds like sh, and yet others where it sounds like k).
The k sound is in the back of the throat, as in kíng, or as q in quêen: cát; the s sound is a hiss, as in that word, híss (where it is, typically, doubled) and in sô: cïrcle (in which the second c has the k sound: *sërkl; the accents show stress and pronunciation: see English spellings). The ch sound can be heard twice in chürch and at the beginning of choôse (*tshûz), but not at all in machìne (*məshêen).
- The accents show stress and pronunciation (see English spellings): A: sát, mâde, pàrk, cāst (cást/càst), åll, ãir; E: ére, êar, vèin, fërn; I: sít, mîne, skì, bïrd; O: sóng, môde, lòve, wörd, ŏr; OO: moôn, foòt; U: sún, mûse, fùll, pürr; W: neŵ, ẁant; Y: gým, mŷ, keỳ, mÿrrh.
The letter c is actually more common than k - and much more common than q - for the throaty sound. It occurs before back vowels a, o and u: cát, còme, còunt, cûre, côast, and liquid consonants l and r: clíck, crúst, clàss. In crícket, thícket, rácket, wícker, bícker, lócker, dócker, crácker, brácken, bráckish, lácking, the k is needed to show the throaty sound of the second c: without the k, the c would sound like an s because of the following e or i. Also, -ck is more common at the end of words as in déck and clóck. But after í, c is quite common finally: plástic, pánic, eléctric, frenétic, mûsic. Compare síc thus with síck ill. Also: mâniác, lîlac, ålmanác, blóc (no words do not end in -ec or -uc).
The hissing s sound occurs before front vowel letters i, e and y: cïrcle, céntre, cŷcle, cínema, nîce, Lâcy, Trâcy, pâcy, and also initially in the combinations caê- and coê-: Caêsar, caêcum, Caêlum, coênobitic, coêlacanth (all sêe-). For the hissing sound to remain before a back vowel, a cedilla is used in Bàrça (cf. Barcelôna, where no cedilla is needed), curaçào, soûpçon, façàde (this word is now often written without the cedilla, especially in AmE) and Provençàl (*Próvón-sàl). The famous rule "i before e except after c" applies only to the ê sound (and not to èi as in vèin): cêiling, decêit, recêive, recêipt (-êet). And then, not only after c, as it happens: sêize, wêir, wêird, Nêil, Kêith and Shêila. Compare vèil, vèin, fèint pretend (= fâint swoon), dèign condescend (= Dâne Denmark), rèign queen (= râin wet), and also théir they (= thére here).
Quite often, especially at the beginning of a word, sc is used for the hissing sound before front vowels: scêne, scîence, scént, scíssors, scîon, scintílla, scímitar, scŷthe, sciática (*sŷáttica); but scéptic is the British spelling of AmE sképtic (cf. séptic wound).
In the suffix -ésce: acquiésce, effervésce, and pronounced z in créscent (*crézzənt).
An exceptional c is found in encephalîtis, pronounced k before e (enkéf-); otherwise c is always a hiss before e, i and y.
There are silent cs in indîct, Tûcson and Connécticut. ch most typically sounds like t plus sh – not usually like sh alone. French, German and Portuguese do not have this sound, although German writes it in foreign words as ‘tsch’. Spanish does have it, whence mácho (*mátcho: it is sometimes mispronounced ‘macko’, as if Italian). ch is common in English, which has taken French words like chàrm ('charme' in French) and modified the sound of the French ch, which has the English sh sound: chéck, choôse, chânge, Ríchard and also côach, bêach, chêek, chéss, chêer, cheŵ, escheŵ (which has a rare, separately sounded, s before it). Inside a word, there is often a superfluous t before ch: ítch, dítch, cátch, mátch, bùtcher - but never after r: tŏrch, lürch, àrch, except in names: Pàrtch person = pàrch tongue. And Tchaîkovsky has the T initially.
This sound is spelt Cz, however, in Czéch Republic (= chéck determine = BrE chéque cash) and Czechoslovákia.
In some words more recently taken from French, ch sounds exactly like sh in shê: machìne, nìche, pastìche, BrE moustàche, AmE moústáche, párachute, créche, Chicàgo and nónchalant, in which AmE French-style silences the t: *nonshalàn.
In other words, mostly from Greek, ch is pronounced k: chord, chémist, psŷchê, dichótomy, schême, àrchive, synécdochê, schoôner, and Mîchael, which rhymes with cŷcle. In various Celtic words ch can sound like the Arabic kh, e.g. lóch, Dócherty - but many non-Celts simply make the k sound here. And in the variant spelling Dóherty, the h sounds like itself alone - or like kh or k. The same sound occurs in initial position in the Hebrew/Yiddish word chùtzpah, where many English-speakers pronounce it as h.
Åuchinleck in Scotland is pronounced *Áffleck.
In yacht, ch is silent: *yót.
ci before a vowel can have the sh sound: atrôcious (*atrôshəss), précious (*préshəss), magícian (*məjíshən), Confûcius (*Kənfyoôshəss) - but never the zh sound, which is restricted to si: confûsion (*cənfyûzhən).
In the musical term acciacatûra, from Italian, cci is pronounced with the ch sound.
Double c has the k sound before back vowels (but for this, ck is far more common medially and finally): accŏrd, tobácco, accommodâtion, áccolâde, sóccer.
cc has the x sound before i and e: áccent, accépt, áccident, fláccid, áccess, succêed, succéss, succínct, váccine, Óccitan. Åltrincham is pronounced as if spelt *Åltringham.
The second c in concërto/concérto is most often pronounced as sh, though it may also have the original Italian pronunciation, ch.
c begins consonant clusters: accépt (x sound, while accŏrd has no cluster, only the k sound), acknówledge, táckle, clûe, ácmê, ácnê, acquîre, cróss, áct.
Mc- and Mac-, etc.
In names beginning Mc- and Mac- before another c, k or g, the c is silent, while the sometimes invisible a is in most cases pronounced with the schwa sound. It is as if the c itself were being pronounced schwa: McGóugh (*MəGóff), McCúrry, McCŏrmack, McKénzie = Mackénzie. This is sometimes the case before W: McWhínney *MəWhínney.
Either Mác or Mc can be stressed in a smaller number of names: MácIlvoy, McEnroe. In the latter the stressed syllable is an invisible á: *Máckənrô.
The c is always hard, even when not followed by a capital or k: McIntosh = MácIntosh = Máckintosh. When capitalising, the c is best kept small: McINTOSH.
nc has the ng sound of the n in úncle and accidentally in páncake. In Åltrincham, the c itself is not pronounced, merely modifying the n, as if the spelling were *Åltringham.
Final c is rare, except for the suffix -ic: plástic, jurássic, elástic, chrónic (k-) mánic; and Éric, chìc (sh-), Cádillac, Póntiac, Potômac and in abbreviations: tálc, mác. But *téc is téch.
To keep the c hard and prevent it becoming a hiss, a k is added to -ic before -ing and -ed: frólicking, pánicking, políticking, tráfficked.
But ck is much more common in monosyllables: síck, thíck, píck, wíck, críck, báck, déck, sóck, lúck, and as in jácket, crícket, píckle, níckel, pécker, lúcky.
After two vowel letters, k alone is always used: toòk, spoôk, sêek, roòk, wêek, lêak liquid = lêek vegetable, wêek, spêak, breâk, shrìêk.
Use in Turkish
In Turkish, c is pronounced like an English j (IPA [dʒ]), and ç like an English ch ([tʃ]).
Scientific uses
- C is the symbol for the chemical element carbon.
- c: speed of light in vacuum
Computer character encoding
In Unicode the capital C is codepoint U+0043 and the lowercase c is U+0063.
The ASCII code for capital C is 67 and for lowercase c is 99; or in binary 01000011 and 01100011, respectively.
The EBCDIC code for capital C is 195 for lowercase c is 131.
The numeric character references in HTML and XML are "C" and "c" for upper and lower case respectively.