History of England

The History of Britain covers the history of Great Britain and Ireland (before the creation of an independent Eire) from prehistoric times to the present.

The chronology on the timelines subpage provides an account of many major events that are not specifically referred to in the following article. It also provides a gateway to the references and online sources on which most of the following is based.

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Prehistory

The oldest human remains that have been found in Britain have been carbon-dated as being up to 10,000 years old, and the DNA of a skeleton found in a Cheddar cave has been found to be a close match of a modern dweller in the same area. Since the separation of Britain from the continental landmass did not occur until about 6000 BCE , it would be wrong to refer to "Cheddar Man" as British, but the survival of his DNA, despite the subsequent intrusions of conquerors and migrants has been cited in defence of the relevance of ancient history to current affairs.

The main evidence of prehistoric communal activity concerns the "Beaker People" of the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE - named after their distinctive ware pottery. The Beaker People kept livestock and cultivated flax and cereals, used woven fabrics and practiced archery. The wide diffusion of the pottery discoveries suggests that they were a mobile and energetic people, and their grave goods indicate fairly extensive trading activities.. However, the scores of megaliths that are to be found scattered throughout Britain and Ireland provide the most visible evidence of the achievements of that period. The evidence of Stonehenge suggests that some of the inhabitants were accomplished civil engineers, and that some had acquired some knowledge of astronomy. The technology that they used is not known - although Bernard Cornwell has provided a plausible fictional account of how they might have solved the problem,

Celtic Britain

The history of Celtic people in Britain is limited by a lack of textual evidence about the period, but it is clear from the archeological evidence that they, too were far from primitive. "Ogham inscriptions" on surviving stone artifacts prove that they used an alphabetic language that modern linguists have been able to decipher, and historians tend to conclude that a Celtic aversion to textual recording must have been the reason for the lack of other textual evidence. The Celts are known to have been migrants from Northern Europe because of their common cultural characteristics, including related languages and similar artifacts. They were all users of metal ploughs and various forms of wheeled transport . Despite the existence of those common cultural characteristics, there is no evidence to suggest that there was any coordination of their activities, or that any Celt thought of himself as a member of any organisation larger than his own tribe . However, the two dozen or so tribes that settled in Britain and Ireland have been categorised into two linguistic groupings - the "Goidelic" group including Irish, Manx and Scottish; and the "Brythonic" group including Breton, Welsh and Cornish - or, more precisely, those were the languages into which they gradually evolved. All of those languages have survived of have been revived, and they constitute one category of the modern legacy from the Celtic migration. (The various modern "Celtic Revival" organisations also lay claim to a range of cultural legacies, some of which, such as "Celtic Music" consist of developments occurring long after Celtic Britain gave way to Roman Britain).

Roman occupation

The period of over a thousand years of Celtic domination was interrupted in parts of Britain by a very different period of about four hundred years of Roman occupation. Whereas the people known collectively as Celts consisted of a large number of independent or loosely-associated tribes that occasionally coalesced into somewhat larger groupings, the Romans who invaded Britain were a closely coordinated, centrally-managed occupation force. Whereas the Celtic contribution had been largely genetic and cultural, the Roman contribution was largely technological and political. Although the culture of Rome and ancient Greece was to have a profound influence upon British culture, that did not happen as a result of the Roman occupation. Its major contributions at the time were the result of the occupiers' skills in political administration and civil engineering. The inhabitants of those parts of Britain that came completely under Roman control gained the benefits of living in a province of the Roman empire. Those gains included the establishment and enforcement of a legal system, access to Greek and Roman culture, and the building in stone of villas, towns and roads, Many of the native inhabitants became Roman citizens, and their elite were given positions of administrative responsibility. And then the Romans left - leaving behind a country that gradually abandoned nearly all of those gains. In the course of the following century there was a major decline in the numbers able to read Latin, codified Roman law gave way to Saxon common law, villas, towns and roads were - with only a few exceptions - allowed to decay, and all stone-working skills were lost.

Where there was not complete Roman control, Celtic society survived and developed along different lines. The Romans did not invade Ireland, they abandoned their early attempts to control what is now Scotland, and they achieved only partial control of England north of the river Trent. In Ireland, in particular there was unbroken development, up to the eleventh century invasions of the Vikings and the Normans, and to some extent beyond those events. In Ireland and in Scotland there was a progressive transition from a fragmented tribal structure into larger groupings that were eventual to lead to integrated national political structures.

( more detailed accounts of developments in Ireland and Scotland are available in the articles Ireland, history and Scotland, history)

The rise of Christianity

The practice of Christianity in the Roman Empire was a capital offence until the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, but the martyrdom of St Albans is evidence that it was nevertheless practiced in Britain. The recorded attendance of British bishops at the Council of Arles in 314 CE suggests the previous existence of a form of Christian church among the local population, and the adoption of Christianity as the Roman state religion in 391CE must have helped it to spread. It is not known whether the Celtic/Roman Christians attempted to convert the Saxon invaders after the end of the Roman occupation (the historian Bede said that they did not, but his impartiality has been questioned .). However, it seems safe to assume that Christian churches survived in the regions of Wales and Cornwall that the invaders did not reach, although their existence may have been unknown to the church officials in Rome. Christianity did not reach until the missionaries Palladius and Patrick were sent there by Pope Celestine, and may not have reached Scotland until the arrival there of Saint Ninian and it seems that the main burdens of missionary work fell to Saint Patrick in Ireland and Saint Columba in Scotland.

From the Reformation to the Industrial Revolution

Tudor era: 1485-1605

• Henry VIII
• Elizabeth I

Stuart era : 1605-1688

English Civil War 1642 - 1648

For more information see English Civil War

The English Civil war was the conflict between King Charles I of England and a large body of his subjects, generally called the "parliamentarians," that culminated in the defeat and execution of the king and the establishment of a republican commonwealth.

The English civil war began in January 1642 as a result of long standing conflict between those that believed the recently established Parliament should rule the country, independent of King Charles' influence, and those that believed the King should rule by divine right. The war began when, on January 4^th 1642, Charles I marched on Parliament hoping to dissolve it, as it had recently passed a law limiting the King's power. However the Parliament had fled and Charles' attempt failed and thus both sides began recruiting as war was inevitable.

The King drew his support mainly from those of Anglican and Catholic backgrounds and also from the nobility. It was due to the large number of noblemen, who were trained to ride on horseback at a young age, that the King's supporters were nicknamed 'Cavaliers'. Those in support of the Parliament were usually from Puritan backgrounds as they had been persecuted by the King and felt that he and his supporters were possibly planning to return England to Catholicism. Those making up the Parliamentary army were contemptuously known as 'Roundheads' by the Royalists; this due to the very short hair cut worn by some of the younger soldiers. Support for the sides was also drawn from different geographical areas. The King drew support from the landowners in the north and west of the country establishing his base in Oxford, whereas the parliamentary army was strongest in the south-east where the growing merchant class in London joined their cause.

Throughout 1642 & 1643 there were no decisive battles, however 2 events of note occurred in favour of the parliamentarians. The first was the emergence of Oliver Cromwell as one of the army's leaders. A devout puritan with no military training, Cromwell changed the army's tactics, organisation and weaponry, changes that proved decisive in the second half of the conflict. The second event, the Parliament's alliance with the Scottish army, occurred in September 1643, under the promise that England would establish a centralised Presbyterian church after the war.

In early 1644 the Scottish army entered north England and with the parliamentary army dealt a series of crushing defeats, particularly at Marston Moor in July 1644 and Naseby in June 1645, as they moved south. In June 1646 Oxford surrendered and in 1647 the King surrendered to the Scots and was handed over to the Parliament who imprisoned him. However the King escaped and fled to Scotland. He managed to persuade the Scots to fight on his side but their army was defeated at Preston in August 1648. Charles was imprisoned again, beheaded on January 30^th, 1649, and the republic known as the Commonwealth was set up, governed by the Rump Parliament (without the House of Lords) and by an executive council of state.

From the Industrial Revolution to the end of the Second World War

Economic change

The Industrial revolution began in mid-18th century and by the 1840s had dramatically changed the economy.

The inter-war years

Prime Minister David Lloyd George led a coalition of Liberals and conservatives into the 1918 election. His letter endorsing coalition candidates was referred to as a coupon by Herbert Asquith, hence the term coupon election. This was the first election since 1910 and the first in which women had the vote. The major issues of the coalition programme where; a) to try the German Kaiser. b) To make Germany pay a large war indemnity. c) To create a country 'fit for heroes' who had returned from the war.

These policies were popular and Georges's reputation as 'the man who won the war' ensured that the coalition won by a wide margin. The election results were notable for the Sinn Féin success in Ireland, the rise of Labour with 59 seats as the main opposition and the beginning of the disintegration of the once mighty Liberal Party, whose supporters flocked to both the Conservatives and Labour in years to come.

In the early years of the new government a number of measures were passed which added to George's reputation as a social reformer. The Fisher Education Act (1918) abolished child labour. The Housing Act (1919) led to over 200,000 houses being built and the Insurance Act (1921) extended insurance to all workers suffering from illness or those unemployed. However the government was beset by a number of problems which led to George's resignation.

Four million men demobilised by the end of 1921. As women were not allowed to retain the jobs they had worked in during the war and because of the subsequent economic boom, most men were absorbed into industry. Yet many of these veterans were restless and yearned for a better life. This 'class conscioussness' led directly to the General Strikes of 1925 and the struggle for social reform within the nation.

In the summer of 1920 the boom turned to a slump. Unemployment was becoming a problem and by 1921 reached two million. Cutbacks in the budget ensured around £100 million was taken from housing, education and social services. The slump in turn led to industrial unrest, especially in the coalfields. The Miner's federation voted to strike in support of its demands of nationalisation of the mines, which they assumed would produce higher wages and less managerial control. Eventually they went on strike after a wage cut and called for sympathy from railwaymen and transport workers. When this support was later withdrawn the Unions were defeated.

These problems were gradually making George less popular. The existence of the "Lloyd George Fund" added a taint of corruption to the mix. Without a political party or funds he sought to amass by private means funds to ensure his political future. This in turn led to the trading of honours for donations.

Conservative bankbenchers were angry over the Anglo-Irish Treaty and awaited the opportunity to oust George. This came with the Chanak Crisis of 1922. A refusal by the Turks to accept the terms of the Treaty of Sévres led to George issuing an ultimatum before negotiations could begin. Angered by his responsibility for bringing the country to the brink of war, the Conservatives demanded an end to the postwar coalition. When they withdrew their support George resigned. Although he remained as leader of the Liberals from 1926 to 1931, he would never again hold political office.

Second World War

The powers of the central government increased dramatically. New departments were set up for a wide range of areas such as food, shipping and information. The Emergency Powers Acts of 1939 and 1940 gave the government wide powers of arrest. These were rarely used, and even Sir Oswald Mosley, Britain's leading fascist, was released from jail in 1943.

The postwar years(1945-2009)

Aftermath of war

British deaths from the Second World War numbered 393,000. Britain's economy suffered dreadfully, One quarter of the national wealth was spent on the war effort. The national debt tripled and two thirds of the export trade had been lost. Inflation had risen and the standard of living fallen. The Economist wrote, Our present needs are the direct consequence of the fact that we ought earliest, that we fought longest and that we fought hardest.

Egalitarianism after the war was a result of inter-class co-operation throughout the war. The victory of Clement Atlee's Labour Party and the radical social changes he promised were a testament to this. Liberal leader Sir William Beveridge wrote a report on Social Insurance in November, 1942 that was widely hailed and accepted by all parties. The "Beveridge report" promised a comprehensive scheme of social insurance from 'the cradle to the grave' against illness, unemployment and poverty. These adversities were to be overcome by the provision of social insurance for public health, free medical aid, unemployment insurance, improved housing and other reforming measures. There were to form the basis of the Welfare State. When the report was not given sufficient support by the wartime coalition, the greatest advocates of it - The Labour Party - staged the biggest parliamentary revolt of the 1940-1945 period. The Butler education Act of 1944, sponsored by the Conservatives, was of the same reforming nature as the Beveridge report. It raised the school leaving age to 15 and set up three types of free secondary education; grammar, technical and modern. All children sat the "11 plus" examination in order that the authorities could best decide what type of school best suited their abilities. In addition, nursery schools and schools for the handicapped were also established. Local authorities were to build schools and grant scholarships to provide greater access to higher education. There was also provision for school meals and improved medical services for children.