History of England

The History of Britain covers the history of England and the areas of the British Isles it controlled from the prehistoric era to the present.

• also
• Ireland, history
• Scotland, history
• British Empire

Prehistory

• Ice ages
• Paleolithic
• Mesolithic
• Neolithic
• Bronze Age
• Iron Age
• Religion
• Celts?

The late pre-Roman Iron Age

Britain emerged into recorded history in the Classical period. It is likely that the name Cassiterides or "tin islands", mentioned in the 5th century BC by Herodotus, refers to the British Isles. The Greek explorer Pytheas of Massalia claimed to have visited the island in the 4th century, and although his own writings are lost, and later classical writers are sceptical, it seems likely that he did so. However, little else is recorded about the island until the 1st century BC.

The Belgae of north-eastern Gaul began to settle on the coasts of south-eastern Britain in the 2nd or early 1st century BC, after a period of raiding, and a Gaulish Belgic king called Diviciacus is known to have held power there. Then, in the mid-1st century BC, Britain became part of Rome's sphere of political influence. Julius Caesar, in the course of his conquest of Gaul, made two armed expeditions there in 55 and 54 BC. The first barely gained a foothold on the south-east coast before being forced to return to the continent for winter. The second was more successful, installing a friendly king, Mandubracius of the Trinovantes, and forcing the submission of his rival Cassivellaunus, but conquered no territory and did not extend beyond the Thames Valley.

Coins had arrived in Britain before Caesar, perhaps as early as the late 3rd century BC. The earliest were imported from Belgic Gaul, and were uninscribed. By the early 1st century BC the Britons of the south-east were striking their own coins. The first inscribed coins were those of Caesar's former ally Commius, who fled to Britain after falling out with Caesar and established a dynasty there. The practice spread, allowing the archaeologist some insight into British politics in this period. Beginning with Commius' son Tincomarus, the traditional Gallo-Belgic design, ulimately derived from the 4th century BC gold staters of Philip II of Macedon, was replaced by Roman-derived designs.

Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus' reign, claims that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could, and mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus. Based mainly on coin evidence, Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms, the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius, and archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods in the south-east. These peaceful relations broke down in AD AD 39 or 40, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and staged an invasion that collapsed in farcical circumstances.

Roman Empire

When Claudius successfully invaded in 43, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, this time Verica of the Atrebates. The Catuvellaunian territory became the nucleus of a new Roman province, while Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus was sent up as the client ruler of Atrebatian and other lands. Over the course of the 1st century Roman control expended west into Wales, then north into Scotland. However, the Roman presence in the north proved untenable, and was withdrawn to the line of Hadrian's Wall in the 2nd century.

• Names
• Language
• Urbanisation & road-building
• Arrival of Christianity
• Roman civil wars

Post Rome

• Roman withdrawal
• Migration period
• Anglo-Saxons, Picts, Scots
• Arthur legend
• Emergence of England, Scotland and Wales

The Middle Ages

• Early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England, Gaelic kingdoms in Scotland, Welsh kingdoms
• Norman conquests of England and Wales
• Wars of Scottish independence
• Owain Glyndwr's rebellion in Wales
• Wars of the Roses
• Stuart Scotland

Early Modern Era

Tudor era: 1485-1605

• Henry VIII
• Elizabeth I

Stuart era and Civil War: 1605-1688

English Civil War 1642 - 1648

For more information see English Civil War

The English Civil war was the conflict between King Charles I of England and a large body of his subjects, generally called the "parliamentarians," that culminated in the defeat and execution of the king and the establishment of a republican commonwealth.

The English civil war began in January 1642 as a result of long standing conflict between those that believed the recently established Parliament should rule the country, independent of King Charles' influence, and those that believed the King should rule by divine right. The war began when, on January 4^th 1642, Charles I marched on Parliament hoping to dissolve it, as it had recently passed a law limiting the King's power. However the Parliament had fled and Charles' attempt failed and thus both sides began recruiting as war was inevitable.

The King drew his support mainly from those of Anglican and Catholic backgrounds and also from the nobility. It was due to the large number of noblemen, who were trained to ride on horseback at a young age, that the King's supporters were nicknamed 'Cavaliers'. Those in support of the Parliament were usually from Puritan backgrounds as they had been persecuted by the King and felt that he and his supporters were possibly planning to return England to Catholicism. Those making up the Parliamentary army were contemptuously known as 'Roundheads' by the Royalists; this due to the very short hair cut worn by some of the younger soldiers. Support for the sides was also drawn from different geographical areas. The King drew support from the landowners in the north and west of the country establishing his base in Oxford, whereas the parliamentary army was strongest in the south-east where the growing merchant class in London joined their cause.

Throughout 1642 & 1643 there were no decisive battles, however 2 events of note occurred in favour of the parliamentarians. The first was the emergence of Oliver Cromwell as one of the army's leaders. A devout puritan with no military training, Cromwell changed the army's tactics, organisation and weaponry, changes that proved decisive in the second half of the conflict. The second event, the Parliament's alliance with the Scottish army, occurred in September 1643, under the promise that England would establish a centralised Presbyterian church after the war.

In early 1644 the Scottish army entered north England and with the parliamentary army dealt a series of crushing defeats, particularly at Marston Moor in July 1644 and Naseby in June 1645, as they moved south. In June 1646 Oxford surrendered and in 1647 the King surrendered to the Scots and was handed over to the Parliament who imprisoned him. However the King escaped and fled to Scotland. He managed to persuade the Scots to fight on his side but their army was defeated at Preston in August 1648. Charles was imprisoned again, beheaded on January 30^th, 1649, and the republic known as the Commonwealth was set up, governed by the Rump Parliament (without the House of Lords) and by an executive council of state.

• John Milton
• William Shakespeare

Later Stuarts and Hanoverians 1688-1837

• Charles II (Britain)
• James II
• William III (Britain)‎
• George I (Britain)
• George II (Britain)
• George III
• American Revolution
• George IV
• Edmund Burke
• Robert Walpole
• William IV
• Industrial revolution

Economic history

The Industrial revolution began in mid-18th century and by the 1840s had dramatically changed the economy.

Empire

• British Empire
• Benjamin Disraeli
• William Ewart Gladstone
• Irish Famine
• Queen Victoria

First World War

• George V
• Herbert Henry Asquith
• David Lloyd George
• World War I

Postwar: The Lloyd George years

• David Lloyd George

Prime Minister David Lloyd George led a coalition of Liberals and conservatives into the 1918 election. His letter endorsing coalition candidates was referred to as a coupon by Herbert Asquith, hence the term coupon election. This was the first election since 1910 and the first in which women had the vote. The major issues of the coalition programme where; a) to try the German Kaiser. b) To make Germany pay a large war indemnity. c) To create a country 'fit for heroes' who had returned from the war.

These policies were popular and Georges's reputation as 'the man who won the war' ensured that the coalition won by a wide margin. The election results were notable for the Sinn Féin success in Ireland, the rise of Labour with 59 seats as the main opposition and the beginning of the disintegration of the once mighty Liberal Party, whose supporters flocked to both the Conservatives and Labour in years to come.

In the early years of the new government a number of measures were passed which added to George's reputation as a social reformer. The Fisher Education Act (1918) abolished child labour. The Housing Act (1919) led to over 200,000 houses being built and the Insurance Act (1921) extended insurance to all workers suffering from illness or those unemployed. However the government was beset by a number of problems which led to George's resignation.

Four million men demobilised by the end of 1921. As women were not allowed to retain the jobs they had worked in during the war and because of the subsequent economic boom, most men were absorbed into industry. Yet many of these veterans were restless and yearned for a better life. This 'class conscioussness' led directly to the General Strikes of 1925 and the struggle for social reform within the nation.

In the summer of 1920 the boom turned to a slump. Unemployment was becoming a problem and by 1921 reached two million. Cutbacks in the budget ensured around £100 million was taken from housing, education and social services. The slump in turn led to industrial unrest, especially in the coalfields. The Miner's federation voted to strike in support of its demands of nationalisation of the mines, which they assumed would produce higher wages and less managerial control. Eventually they went on strike after a wage cut and called for sympathy from railwaymen and transport workers. When this support was later withdrawn the Unions were defeated.

These problems were gradually making George less popular. The existence of the "Lloyd George Fund" added a taint of corruption to the mix. Without a political party or funds he sought to amass by private means funds to ensure his political future. This in turn led to the trading of honours for donations.

Conservative bankbenchers were angry over the Anglo-Irish Treaty and awaited the opportunity to oust George. This came with the Chanak Crisis of 1922. A refusal by the Turks to accept the terms of the Treaty of Sévres led to George issuing an ultimatum before negotiations could begin. Angered by his responsibility for bringing the country to the brink of war, the Conservatives demanded an end to the postwar coalition. When they withdrew their support George resigned. Although he remained as leader of the Liberals from 1926 to 1931, he would never again hold political office.

Second World War

• George VI
• Winston Churchill
• World War II
• World War II, homefront

The powers of the central government increased dramatically. New departments were set up for a wide range of areas such as food, shipping and information. The Emergency Powers Acts of 1939 and 1940 gave the government wide powers of arrest. These were rarely used, and even Sir Oswald Mosley, Britain's leading fascist, was released from jail in 1943.

Postwar (1945-70)

British deaths from the Second World War numbered 393,000. Britain's economy suffered dreadfully, One quarter of the national wealth was spent on the war effort. The national debt tripled and two thirds of the export trade had been lost. Inflation had risen and the standard of living fallen. The Economist wrote, Our present needs are the direct consequence of the fact that we ought earliest, that we fought longest and that we fought hardest.

Egalitarianism after the war was a result of inter-class co-operation throughout the war. The victory of Clement Atlee's Labour Party and the radical social changes he promised were a testament to this. Liberal leader Sir William Beveridge wrote a report on Social Insurance in November, 1942 that was widely hailed and accepted by all parties. The "Beveridge report" promised a comprehensive scheme of social insurance from 'the cradle to the grave' against illness, unemployment and poverty. These adversities were to be overcome by the provision of social insurance for public health, free medical aid, unemployment insurance, improved housing and other reforming measures. There were to form the basis of the Welfare State. When the report was not given sufficient support by the wartime coalition, the greatest advocates of it - The Labour Party - staged the biggest parliamentary revolt of the 1940-1945 period. The Butler education Act of 1944, sponsored by the Conservatives, was of the same reforming nature as the Beveridge report. It raised the school leaving age to 15 and set up three types of free secondary education; grammar, technical and modern. All children sat the "11 plus" examination in order that the authorities could best decide what type of school best suited their abilities. In addition, nursery schools and schools for the handicapped were also established. Local authorities were to build schools and grant scholarships to provide greater access to higher education. There was also provision for school meals and improved medical services for children.

Recent history: 1970 to present

• Tony Blair
• Elizabeth II
• Margaret Thatcher

Bibliography

Surveys and reference

• Fraser, Rebecca. The Story of Britain: From the Romans to the Present: A Narrative History (2006), 848pp popular excerpt and text search
• Mitchell, B. R. British Historical Statistics (1988) 900pp
• Morgan, Kenneth O. The Oxford History of Britain (2nd ed. 2001), 800pp excerpt and text search
• Schama, Simon. A History of Britain vol 1: At the Edge of the World, 3500 B.C.-1603 A.D (2000) excerpt and text search vol 1; Volume 2: The Wars of the British 1603-1776 (2001) excerpt and text search v 2; vol 3: The Fate of Empire 1776-2000 (2003) excerpt and text search v 3; well written narrative by a scholar

Medieval

• Bartlett, Robert. England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 1075-1225 (New Oxford History of England) (2002) excerpt and text search
• Powicke, Maurice. The Thirteenth Century, 1216-1307 (Oxford History of England) (1953) 829 pages
• Saul, Nigel. The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval England (2001) excerpt and text search
• Stenton, Frank M. Anglo-Saxon England (1947) 747pp excerpt and text search

Early modern

• Beier, A. L. The Problem of the Poor in Tudor and Early Stuart England (1983) online edition
• Braddick, Michael. "State Formation and the Historiography of Early Modern England." History Compass 2004 2(Britain & Ireland). Issn: 1478-0542 Fulltext: History Compass
• Cheyney, Edward Potts. A History of England, from the Defeat of the Armada to the Death of Elizabeth (2 vol 1914) complete text vol 1
• Gardner, James. "Henry VIII" in Cambridge Modern History vol 2 (1903), a brief political history online edition
• Graves, Michael. Henry VIII (2003) 217pp, topical coverage
• Levin, Carole. The Reign of Elizabeth I. (2001). 146 pp.
• Lingard, John. The History of England, vol 6 (1850), old but reliable online edition
• MacCaffrey, Wallace. Elizabeth I: War and Politics, 1588-1603 (1992), excerpts and text search
• McLaren, A. N. Political culture in the reign of Elizabeth I: queen and commonwealth, 1558–1585 (1999) online edition
• Morrill, John, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Tudor and Stuart Britain (1996) essays by scholars
• Pollard, A.F. Henry VIII (1905) 470 pp; the first modern biography, accurate and still valuable online edition
• Rowse, A. L. The Elizabethan Renaissance: The Cultural Achievement (1972), portrays England as enjoying a golden age of individual opportunity and achievement
• Scarisbrick, J. J. Henry VIII (1968) 592pp, a favourable scholarly biography; his Henry was "a formidable, captivating man who wore regality with a splendid conviction. But easily and unpredictably his great charm could turn into anger and shouting.... He was high-strung and unstable; hypochondriac and possessed of a strong streak of cruelty."
• Schmidt, Albert F. The Yeoman in Tudor and Stuart England (1961) online edition
• Weir, Alison. Henry VIII, King and Court (2001). 640pp a flattering portrait excerpt and text search

Primary sources

• Stater, Victor, ed. Politics And The Political History of Tudor and Stuart England: A Sourcebook (2002) online edition

17th century to 1688

• see also Oliver Cromwell/Bibliography

• Carlin, Norah. The Causes of the English Civil War (1999)
• Coward, Barry, ed. A Companion to Stuart Britain (2003) excerpt and text search
• Coward, Barry The Stuart Age: England, 1603-1714, (3rd ed. 2003). ISBN 0-582-77251-6. stabard survey of political history of the era.
• Davies, Godfrey. The Early Stuarts, 1603-1660 (1959). online. Political, religious, and diplomatic overview of the era.
• Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649 (4 vol 1898) famous classic online edition from Google
• Gaunt, Peter. The British Wars, 1637-1651 (1997)
• Kenyon, John, and Jane Ohlmeyer, eds. The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland 1638-1660 391 pp. (1998), thorough coverage by numerous scholars online edition
• Kishlansky, Mark. Monarchy Transformed: Britain, 1603-1714 (1996)
• Lockyer, Roger. The Early Stuarts: A Political History of England, 1603-1642 (2nd ed. 1999).
• Macfarlane, Alan. Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England (1999) online edition
• Macinnes, Allan. The British Revolution, 1629-1660 (2005), 337pp ISBN 0-333-59750-8.
• Seel, Graham E. Regicide and Republic, England 1603-1660 (2001)
• Woolrych, Austin. Britain in Revolution 1625-1660 (2002), ISBN 0-19-927268-6. excerpt and text search

Primary sources

• Hughes, Ann, ed. Seventeenth-century England: A Changing Culture, vol. 1 (1980)
• Kenyon, J. P., ed. The Stuart Constitution (2nd edition, 1986).
• Stater, Victor, ed. Politics And The Political History of Tudor and Stuart England: A Sourcebook (2002) online edition

1689-1815

• Black, Jeremy. Eighteenth-Century Britain: 1688-1783 (2001) excerpt and text search
• Hoppit, Julian. A Land of Liberty?: England 1689-1727 (New Oxford History of England) (2002) excerpt and text search
• Langford, Paul. A Polite and Commercial People: England 1727-1783 (New Oxford History of England) (1994) excerpt and text search
• Macaulay, Thomas Babington. History of England (5 vol., 1849-61), famous classic covers 1685-1702 online editions
• Prest, Wilfrid. Albion Ascendant: English History, 1660-1815. (1998). 363 pp.
• Seel, Graham E. Seel, and David L. Smith. The Early Stuart Kings, 1603-1642 (2001) 146pp online edition
• Watson J. Steven. The Reign of George III: 1760-1815 (1960) The Oxford History of England online edition

1815-1914

• Arnstein, Walter L. Queen Victoria (2003), 254pp; compact biography by leading scholar excerpt and text search
• Bates, Stephen. Asquith (2006) 176pp excerpt online
• Hilton, Boyd. A Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People?: England 1783-1846 (New Oxford History of England) (2006) excerpt and text search
• Homans, Margaret. Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837-1876 (1998)
• Hoppen, K. Theodore. The Mid-Victorian Generation 1846-1886 (New Oxford History of England) (2000) 824pp excerpt and text search
• Parry, J. P. "Disraeli and England." Historical Journal 2000 43(3): 699-728. Issn: 0018-246x in Jstor]
• Searle, G. R. A New England?: Peace and War 1886-1918 (2005) 976pp excerpt and text search

1914-1945

• Best, Geoffrey. Churchill: A Study in Greatness (2003), 400pp; very well received biography
• Blake, Robert and Louis William Roger, eds. Churchill: A Major New Reassessment of His Life in Peace and War Oxford UP, 1992, 581 pp; 29 essays by scholars on specialized topicsonline edition
• Blewett, Neal. The Peers, the Parties, and the People: The British General Elections of 1910 (1971)
• Calder, Angus . The People's War: Britain 1939-45 (1969)
• Corelli, Barnett. The Audit of War: The Illusion and Reality of Britain as a Great Nation. (1986). on WW2
• Hancock, W. K. and Gowing, M.M. British War Economy (1949) official WW2 history
• Havighurst, Alfred F. Twentieth-Century Britain. 1966. standard survey online edition
• Hazlehurst, Cameron. "Asquith as Prime Minister, 1908-1916," The English Historical Review Vol. 85, No. 336 (Jul., 1970), pp. 502-531 in JSTOR
• Jones, Thomas. Lloyd George 1951. short and well-regarded online edition
• Keegan, John. Winston Churchill (2002) 208 pp online excerpt
• Marwick, Arthur. The Home Front: The British and the Second World War. 1976.
• Morgan, Kenneth O. "George, David Lloyd, first Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor (1863–1945)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2004; online
• Mowat, Sharles Loch. Britain between the Wars, 1918-1940 (1955) 694 pp; online edition
• Powell, David. British Politics, 1910-1935: The Crisis of the Party System (2004)
• Taylor, A. J. P. English History, 1914-1945. 1965, standard political history of the era
• Titmuss, Richard M. Problems of Social Policy(1950) official WW2 history
• Woodward, Sir Llewellyn. Great Britain and the War of 1914-1918. 1967.

1945-present

• Tony Blair/Bibliography
• Margaret Thatcher/Bibliography

• Campbell, John. Margaret Thatcher. Vol. 1: The Grocer's Daughter. (2000); Margaret Thatcher. vol. 2: Iron Lady (2007), 520pp; 913pp; long, detailed authoritative biography
• Evans, Brendan. Thatcherism and British Politics, 1975-1997 (2000)
• Evans, Eric J. Thatcher and Thatcherism. (2nd ed. 2004). 176 pp online edition
• Fielding, Steven. The Labour Party: Continuity and Change in the Making of New Labour. (2003), 247 pp., argues that the Labour Party, under Blair's leadership, has been faithful to its past, and represents "traditional values in a modern setting." ISBN 0333973925
• Fry, Geoffrey K. Politics of the Thatcher Revolution: An Interpretation of British Politics 1975-1990 (2008)
• Hennessy, Peter. Having It So Good: Britain in the Fifties (2007), 752pp, detailed social history
• Hennessy, Peter. Never Again: Britain 1945-1951 (2nd ed 2006), 560pp; detailed social history
• Kavanagh, Dennis, and Anthony Seldon, eds. The Thatcher Effect (1989), major interpretive essays by experts
• King, Anthony, ed. British Political Opinion 1937-2000: The Gallup Polls (2001)
• Kynaston, David. Austerity Britain, 1945-1951 (2008), 704pp; highly detailed, well-written social history
• Norton, Bruce F. Politics in Britain, (2007) textbook excerpt and text search
• Reitan, Earl A. The Thatcher Revolution: Margaret Thatcher, John Major, and Tony Blair, and the Transformation of Modern Britain, 1979-2001. (2003) , 260 pp. ISBN 0742522032
• Rubinstein, David. The Labour Party and British Society: 1880-2005. (2005), 228 pp. ISBN 1845190564
• Seldon, Anthony. Blair. (2004) ISBN 0-7432-3211-9
• Seldon, Anthony, ed. Blair's Britain, 1997–2007 (2008), 708pp; 28 long essays by scholars; excerpt and text search
• Temple, Michael. Blair (British Prime Ministers of the 20th Century) (2006) excerpt online
• Wall, Stephen. A Stranger in Europe: Britain and the EU from Thatcher to Blair (2008) excerpt and text search
• Wapshott, Nicholas. Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher: A Political Marriage. (2007) 329 pp.
• Williams, Paul. British Foreign Policy under New Labour (2006) 288pp ISBN 1403913218
• Young, Hugo. The Iron Lady: A Biography of Margaret Thatcher. (1989). 570 pp. well-written and well researched

Social and cultural history

• Doolittle, Megan. "Close Relations? Bringing Together Gender and Family in English History." Gender & History 1999 11(3): 542-554. Issn: 0953-5233 Fulltext: Ebsco
• Thane, Pat. Old Age in English History: Past Experiences, Present Issues. (2000). 536 pp.
• Thompson, F. M., ed. The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750–1950 (2 vol; 1992) excerpt and text search ISBN-13:9780521438155