China

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China, formally The People’s Republic of China, is the most important nation of East Asia, with the largest population in the world and the highest rate of economic growth. The Chinese civilization is one of the oldest in the world. It was slow to develop industrially, falling behind the West in the 18th century. The first half of the 20th century saw successive revolutions, civil war and foreign interference. After many faltering attempts to accelerate development, China began to open up to the outside world and modernize. When Taiwan (known as the "Republic of China") is being compared, the term "Mainland China" is often used. The capital city of China is Beijing, which will host the 2008 Olympics.

This large country covers a vast and diverse landscape, from the steppes and deserts of Inner Mongolia in the north to the tropical islands south of Hainan and west to the mountains of the Himalayas. The northern border of China abuts Mongolia and Russia. The north eastern edge of China rests against North Korea. South from here, China has a long curving coast line which is washed by the Bo Hai, Yellow, East China, and South China Seas. The southern edge borders Vietnam, Laos and Myanmar (Burma). A small border war with Vietnam erupted in 1975. To the west, across the Himalayan mountains, China borders India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Northwest of China borders Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. The highest mountain in the world, Mount Everest, is on the border between Nepal and China. The border with India is contested, to the point of military action and even a small undeclared war in 1962.

The most populous, and developed areas of China are around the East coast and the plains beside the Yangtse and Yellow Rivers which were the seed bed form which Chinese culture developed. The interior becomes less developed to the West. The northeastern provinces of Liaoning, Jilin and Heilong Jiang are known for their heavy industry. The largest city in China, is Chongqing, which may contest for largest in the world. The next largest are Shanghai and Beijing.

History

Full article: China, history

Although archaeologists have found settlements in China dating to 5000 BCE, the earliest nation that can be dated in the area of modern China is the Shang Dynasty, approximately 2000 BCE.

Dynasty followed dynasty, as old regimes would lose the "mandate of heaven;" it was believed that each emperor ruled only with the approval of heaven, and a ruler who was unfit to rule would curse the nation until replaced. In addition, the Chinese capital would occasionally be overrun by "barbarians," who invariably would start a new dynasty in the Chinese capital, integrating their nations into the former dynasty.

Chinese had an advanced artistic culture and well-developed science and technology. However, its science and technology stood still after 1700 and in the 21st century very little survives outside museums, except in for the popular forms of traditional medicine.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the country was beset by large-scale civil wars, major famines, military defeats by Britain and Japan, regional control by powerful warlords and foreign intervention such as the Boxer Rebellion of 1900. In 1911 the revolution deposed the Qing Dynasty and a republic was proclaimed. Under the leadership of the KMT (Kuomintang), headed by Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975), the central government finally suppressed the local warlords who effectively controlled many provinces. The KMT tried to destroy the Communists under Mao Zedong, but they escaped in the "Long March" of 1934-35. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and in 1937 invaded all of China, seizing the coast, the major cities, and setting up a puppet government that controlled most of the population. China was allied with the U.S. and Britain against Japan, and at war's end joined the United Nations as a permanent member of the 5-nation Security Council, with a veto. The Americans attempted to force a negotiated settlement between the KMT and the Communists, but failed. In the face of economic collapse the Communists won the civil war in 1949 under Mao Zedong established a dictatorship, driving the KMT to Taiwan. Taiwan is recognized as an integral part of China in theory, but in practice has been independent since 1949. Mao liquidated millions of opponents, fought the United States in the bloody Korean War )1950-53), and broke with the Soviet Union over the issue of who best represented the Marxist orthodoxy. Mao's regime imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. After 1978, Mao's successor Deng Xiaoping focused on market-oriented economic development, and by 2000 output had quadrupled, population growth ended (by imposing a one-child policy), and good relations were secured with the West. For much of the population, living standards have improved dramatically and the room for personal choice has expanded, yet political controls and Internet censorship remain tight.

China's economy during the last quarter century has changed from a centrally planned system that was largely closed to international trade, to a more market-oriented economy that has a rapidly growing private sector and is a major player in the global economy.

Religion

Full article: China, religion

In addition to the native folk religions, China is home of two of the world's oldest surviving religions: Confucianism and Taoism. Buddhism, carried over from India and Tibet, has strongly influenced China and today there are several schools of Buddhism in the country.

In addition, China has several religious minorities. Islam in China is rather moderate, and Chinese Muslims (majority are of Hui ethnicity) often define their faith in Taoist or Confucian terms, although they do not believe in the supernatural elements of those faiths. Christianity was suppressed or taken over by the state after 1949. In recent years, the restrictions have eased. However several religious groups that reject governmental control are persecuted, notably the Falun Gong.

Economy

Full article: China, economy

China's economy, based on rice and wheat farming, was generally prosperous until the 18th century. Population pressures, and failure to adopt new technology led to an impoverished nation by 1900.

After Mao's death the policy of modernization along Western lines has led to a remarkable rate of economic growth in the industrial cities, which have pulled in millions of peasants from the still poor rural areas. Slack environmental standards have led to serious pollution problems.

The modern Chinese economy has benefited from investments from Taiwan and Hong Kong. They jumped far ahead of China by 1970 in terms of technology, and in recent years have invested in mainland industries.

These two factors have changed Chinese economy, from a command economy to a more socialist state, with the Chinese economy increasingly in the hands of privately-owned businesses, not state- or military-run enterprises. The 2001 declaration by Jiang Zemin (former leader of the Communist Party) of the "theory of three represents" -- that the CCP represents not only workers, but also intellectuals and entrepreneurs -- was an explicit affirmation of what had been a trend for the previous years.

Energy and transportation

The rapid increase in trucks and automobiles has made China a major importer of oil, helping raise world prices. However coal produces over 80% of the nation's energy; 2.3 billion metric tons of coal were mined in 2007. Despite the health risks posed by severe air pollution in cities (see Beijing) and international pressure to reduce greenhouse emissions, China’s coal consumption is projected to increase in line with its rapid economic growth. Most of the coal is mined in the western provinces of Shaanxi and Shanxi and the northwestern region of Inner Mongolia. However most coal customers are located in the industrialized southeastern and central coastal provinces, so coal must be hauled long distances on China’s vast but overextended rail network. More than 40% of rail capacity is devoted to moving coal, and the country has been investing heavily in new lines and cargo-handling facilities in an attempt to keep up with demand. Despite these efforts, China has suffered persistent power shortages in industrial centers for more than five years as electricity output failed to meet demand from a booming economy. Demand for electricity increased 14% in 2007. Severe snowstorms in late January 2008 seriously disrupted the rail and electrical systems, at a time when some 200 million city workers were attempting to visit their home villages during the Lunar New Year holiday. .

Diplomacy

The legal status of the PRC was controversial until the 1970s, when the UN gave it the seat held by the Taiwan regime, and the U.S. extended de facto, then de jure recognition.

Human Rights

Under Mao millions of Chinese were killed by famines or government action against the middle classes. The "Cultural revolution" in the 1960s was a counterattack against intellectuals endorsed by Mao. Human rights violations have lessened after Mao's death in 1975, but the sharp crackdown on students demanding democracy at Tiananmen Square (in central Beijing) in 1989 disappointed hopes for continued liberalization.

Free access to the internet is not allowed. To do business in the Chinese market, Google agreed to comply with government restrictions and censors.

Freedom of speech and religion are strictly controlled, and groups, such as the Falun Gong, are persecuted.

More recently China has loosened its restrictions as it prepares to showcase its achievements for the 2008 Summer Olympics.

Further reading

See the Bibliography tab above for a more comprehensive guide.

• Blunden, Caroline, and Mark Elvin. Cultural Atlas of China (2nd ed 1998) excerpt and text search
• Chow, Gregory C. China's Economic Transformation (2nd ed. 2007) excerpt and text search
• Donald, Stephanie Hemelry, and Robert Benewick. The State of China Atlas: Mapping the World's Fastest Growing Economy (2005) excerpt and text search
• Eberharad, Wolfram. A History of China (2005), 380 pages' full text online free
• Entwisle, Barbara, and Gail E. Henderson, eds. Re-Drawing Boundaries: Work, Households, and Gender in China, (2000); on 1990s
• Fairbank, John King and Goldman, Merle. China: A New History. (1998). 546 pp.
• Gries, Peter Hays. China's New Nationalism: Pride, Politics, and Diplomacy, (2004); recent history
• National Geographic. National Geographic Atlas of China (2007)
• Naughton, Barry. The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth (2007), important new survey
• Ogden S. (ed) China. McGraw-Hill/Dushkin. (2006)
• Oi, Jean C. Rural China Takes Off: Institutional Foundations of Economic Reform, (1999)
• Perkins, Dorothy. Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture. (1999). 662 pp.
• Rawski, Thomas G. and Lillian M. Li, eds. Chinese History in Economic Perspective, (1992) online free
• Roberts, J. A. G. A Concise History of China. (1999). 341 pp.
• Schoppa, R. Keith. The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History. (2000). 356 pp. online edition
• Shambaugh, David. Modernizing China's Military: Progress, Problems, and Prospects (2003)
• Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern China (1991), 876pp; well written survey from 1644 to 1980s excerpt and text search; complete edition online
• Wang, Ke-wen, ed. Modern China: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism. (1998). 442 pp.

See also

• China, history
• Chinese cuisine
• Hong Kong
• Song Dynasty
• Subdivisions of the People's Republic of China
• Taiwan