https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Stress_(physiology)&feed=atom&action=history
Stress (physiology) - Revision history
2024-03-28T15:09:25Z
Revision history for this page on the wiki
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https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Stress_(physiology)&diff=26438&oldid=prev
imported>Meg Taylor at 13:40, 25 October 2013
2013-10-25T13:40:39Z
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 08:40, 25 October 2013</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{dambigbox|the pathological process|Stress}}</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{dambigbox|the pathological process|Stress}}</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress''', as defined by [[Hans Selye]] (who is regarded as the first to formulate the concept of stress in physiological terms) is "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">is </del>is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Stress as such, like temperature as such, is all-inclusive, embodying both the positive and the negative aspects of these concepts."<ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress''', as defined by [[Hans Selye]] (who is regarded as the first to formulate the concept of stress in physiological terms) is "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Stress as such, like temperature as such, is all-inclusive, embodying both the positive and the negative aspects of these concepts."<ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Selye H (1985) [http://www.icnr.com/articles/thenatureofstress.html The nature of stress]</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Selye H (1985) [http://www.icnr.com/articles/thenatureofstress.html The nature of stress]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref> ''All'' living organisms have stressors and stress responses, but this article deals only with those of vertebrates. </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref> ''All'' living organisms have stressors and stress responses, but this article deals only with those of vertebrates. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By Selye's understanding, ''stress'' is not a reaction to any specific thing; it has a characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause; it might be produced by virtually any agent, and the effects can differ from one <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">idividual </del>to another <ref>Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity ''Stress'' 13:1-14. PMID: 20105052</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By Selye's understanding, ''stress'' is not a reaction to any specific thing; it has a characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause; it might be produced by virtually any agent, and the effects can differ from one <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">individual </ins>to another <ref>Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity ''Stress'' 13:1-14. PMID: 20105052</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div></ref>. But stress is not a ''nonspecific'' reaction: in animals, it affects certain organs - notably the adrenal and the pituitary glands, the [[thymus]], and the [[gastrointestinal tract]] in a very selective manner. </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div></ref>. But stress is not a ''nonspecific'' reaction: in animals, it affects certain organs - notably the adrenal and the pituitary glands, the [[thymus]], and the [[gastrointestinal tract]] in a very selective manner. </div></td></tr>
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imported>Meg Taylor
https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Stress_(physiology)&diff=218040&oldid=prev
imported>Meg Taylor at 23:49, 26 September 2013
2013-09-26T23:49:03Z
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 18:49, 26 September 2013</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{subpages}}</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{subpages}}</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{dambigbox|the pathological process|Stress}}</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{dambigbox|the pathological process|Stress}}</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">{{subpages}}</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress''', as defined by [[Hans Selye]] (who is regarded as the first to formulate the concept of stress in physiological terms) is "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether is is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Stress as such, like temperature as such, is all-inclusive, embodying both the positive and the negative aspects of these concepts."<ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress''', as defined by [[Hans Selye]] (who is regarded as the first to formulate the concept of stress in physiological terms) is "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether is is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Stress as such, like temperature as such, is all-inclusive, embodying both the positive and the negative aspects of these concepts."<ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Selye H (1985) [http://www.icnr.com/articles/thenatureofstress.html The nature of stress]</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Selye H (1985) [http://www.icnr.com/articles/thenatureofstress.html The nature of stress]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref> ''All'' living organisms have stressors and stress responses, but this <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">aticle </del>deals only with those of vertebrates. </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref> ''All'' living organisms have stressors and stress responses, but this <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">article </ins>deals only with those of vertebrates. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By Selye's understanding, ''stress'' is not a reaction to any specific thing; it has a characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause; it might be produced by virtually any agent, and the effects can differ from one idividual to another <ref>Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity ''Stress'' 13:1-14. PMID: 20105052</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By Selye's understanding, ''stress'' is not a reaction to any specific thing; it has a characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause; it might be produced by virtually any agent, and the effects can differ from one idividual to another <ref>Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity ''Stress'' 13:1-14. PMID: 20105052</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Any ''demand'' made upon the body - whether physical or emotional, whether from internal or external causes, produces a nonspecific stimulus (a "stressor"). This is converted into nervous signals that may be carried by any of many different neural pathways in the brain, but eventually it acts upon certain neuroendocrine cells in the [[paraventricular nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]]. These cells transform the nervous signals into a humoral messenger, (corticotrophin releasing hormone, CRH), which is secreted from nerve endings into portal blood vessels which carry it to the [[anterior pituitary]] gland. There, CRH stimulates the corticotroph cells to secrete [[adrenocorticotrophic hormone]] (ACTH) into the general circulation. Upon reaching the [[adrenal cortex]], ACTH causes secretion of [[glucocorticoid]]s ([[cortisol]] or [[corticosterone]]). These induce [[glyconeogenesis]], supplying energy for the adaptive reactions necessary to meet the demands faced by the body, facilitate other enzymatically regulated adaptive metabolic responses, and suppress immune reactions as well as inflammation. Glucocorticoids subsequently feedback to the brain and pituitary to terminate the stress response by reducing the responsiveness of neurones in the hypothalamus and elsewhere, and by attenuating the synthesis of CRH and ACTH.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Any ''demand'' made upon the body - whether physical or emotional, whether from internal or external causes, produces a nonspecific stimulus (a "stressor"). This is converted into nervous signals that may be carried by any of many different neural pathways in the brain, but eventually it acts upon certain neuroendocrine cells in the [[paraventricular nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]]. These cells transform the nervous signals into a humoral messenger, (corticotrophin releasing hormone, CRH), which is secreted from nerve endings into portal blood vessels which carry it to the [[anterior pituitary]] gland. There, CRH stimulates the corticotroph cells to secrete [[adrenocorticotrophic hormone]] (ACTH) into the general circulation. Upon reaching the [[adrenal cortex]], ACTH causes secretion of [[glucocorticoid]]s ([[cortisol]] or [[corticosterone]]). These induce [[glyconeogenesis]], supplying energy for the adaptive reactions necessary to meet the demands faced by the body, facilitate other enzymatically regulated adaptive metabolic responses, and suppress immune reactions as well as inflammation. Glucocorticoids subsequently feedback to the brain and pituitary to terminate the stress response by reducing the responsiveness of neurones in the hypothalamus and elsewhere, and by attenuating the synthesis of CRH and ACTH.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The "Fight or Flight" response==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The "Fight or Flight" response==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The ''flight or fight response'', also called the "acute stress response" was first described by Walter Cannon in the 1920s as a theory that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system.<ref>Cannon WB (1914) The emergency function of the adrenal medulla in pain and the major emotions. ''Am J Physiol'' 33:356-72</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The ''flight or fight response'', also called the "acute stress response" was first described by Walter Cannon in the 1920s as a theory that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system.<ref>Cannon WB (1914) The emergency function of the adrenal medulla in pain and the major emotions. ''Am J Physiol'' 33:356-72</ref></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Metabolism'' 59 Suppl 1:S9-15 PMID 20837196</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Metabolism'' 59 Suppl 1:S9-15 PMID 20837196</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==References==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==References==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><references/></del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">{{reflist}}</ins></div></td></tr>
</table>
imported>Meg Taylor
https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Stress_(physiology)&diff=218049&oldid=prev
imported>Gareth Leng: /* The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis */
2010-12-22T21:05:33Z
<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis</span></span></p>
<table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 16:05, 22 December 2010</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Any ''demand'' made upon the body - whether physical or emotional, whether from internal or external causes <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">first </del>produces a nonspecific stimulus (a "stressor"). This is converted into nervous signals <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"> </del>that may be carried by any of many different neural pathways in the brain, but eventually it acts upon certain neuroendocrine cells in the [[paraventricular nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]]. These cells transform the nervous signals into a humoral messenger, (corticotrophin releasing hormone, CRH), which is secreted from nerve endings into portal blood vessels which carry it to the [[anterior pituitary]] gland. There, CRH stimulates the corticotroph cells to secrete [[adrenocorticotrophic hormone]] (ACTH) into the general circulation. Upon reaching the [[adrenal cortex]], ACTH causes secretion of [[glucocorticoid]]s ([[cortisol]] or [[corticosterone]]). These induce [[glyconeogenesis]], supplying energy for the adaptive reactions necessary to meet the demands faced by the body, facilitate other enzymatically regulated adaptive metabolic responses, and suppress immune reactions as well as inflammation. Glucocorticoids subsequently feedback to the brain and pituitary to terminate the stress response by reducing the responsiveness of neurones in the hypothalamus and elsewhere, and by attenuating the synthesis of CRH and ACTH.</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Any ''demand'' made upon the body - whether physical or emotional, whether from internal or external causes<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">, </ins>produces a nonspecific stimulus (a "stressor"). This is converted into nervous signals that may be carried by any of many different neural pathways in the brain, but eventually it acts upon certain neuroendocrine cells in the [[paraventricular nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]]. These cells transform the nervous signals into a humoral messenger, (corticotrophin releasing hormone, CRH), which is secreted from nerve endings into portal blood vessels which carry it to the [[anterior pituitary]] gland. There, CRH stimulates the corticotroph cells to secrete [[adrenocorticotrophic hormone]] (ACTH) into the general circulation. Upon reaching the [[adrenal cortex]], ACTH causes secretion of [[glucocorticoid]]s ([[cortisol]] or [[corticosterone]]). These induce [[glyconeogenesis]], supplying energy for the adaptive reactions necessary to meet the demands faced by the body, facilitate other enzymatically regulated adaptive metabolic responses, and suppress immune reactions as well as inflammation. Glucocorticoids subsequently feedback to the brain and pituitary to terminate the stress response by reducing the responsiveness of neurones in the hypothalamus and elsewhere, and by attenuating the synthesis of CRH and ACTH.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">This [[hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis]] (HPA axis) plays a pivotal role in physiological and behavioral adaptation to environmental change in all vertebrates: the proteins, gene structures, and signaling pathways of the HPA axis were present in the earliest vertebrates and appear to have been tightly conserved through subsequent evolution <ref>Denver RJ (2009) Structural and functional evolution of vertebrate neuroendocrine stress systems ''Ann N Y Acad Sci'' 1163:1-16 PMID 19456324</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ref> The HPA is organized hierarchically, with feedbacks operating at several points. In all vertebrates studied, the HPA axis is controlled centrally by peptides of the CRH family. These effects are mediated by at least two distinct G protein-coupled receptors and modulated by a secreted binding protein. These neuropeptides are also released within the brain and influence stress-related behaviors, such as [[anxiety]] and [[fear]]. </del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">This [[hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis]] (HPA axis) plays a pivotal role in physiological and behavioral adaptation to environmental change in all vertebrates: its proteins, gene structures, and signaling pathways were present in the earliest vertebrates and appear to have been tightly conserved through subsequent evolution <ref>Denver RJ (2009) Structural and functional evolution of vertebrate neuroendocrine stress systems ''Ann N Y Acad Sci'' 1163:1-16 PMID 19456324</ref> The HPA axis is organized hierarchically, with feedbacks operating at several points. In all vertebrates studied, it is controlled centrally by peptides of the CRH family. These effects are mediated by at least two distinct G protein-coupled receptors and modulated by a secreted binding protein. These neuropeptides are also released within the brain and influence stress-related behaviors, such as [[anxiety]] and [[fear]].</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The "Fight or Flight" response==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The "Fight or Flight" response==</div></td></tr>
</table>
imported>Gareth Leng
https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Stress_(physiology)&diff=218046&oldid=prev
imported>Gareth Leng at 21:01, 22 December 2010
2010-12-22T21:01:57Z
<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 16:01, 22 December 2010</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress''', as defined by [[Hans Selye]] (who is regarded as the first to formulate the concept of stress in physiological terms) is "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether is is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Stress as such, like temperature as such, is all-inclusive, embodying both the positive and the negative aspects of these concepts."<ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress''', as defined by [[Hans Selye]] (who is regarded as the first to formulate the concept of stress in physiological terms) is "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether is is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Stress as such, like temperature as such, is all-inclusive, embodying both the positive and the negative aspects of these concepts."<ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Selye H (1985) [http://www.icnr.com/articles/thenatureofstress.html The nature of stress]</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Selye H (1985) [http://www.icnr.com/articles/thenatureofstress.html The nature of stress]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref> ''All'' living organisms have stressors and stress responses, but <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">the term is not used, by the National Library </del>of <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Medicine, in indexing information on lower animals, plants or microorganisms</del>. </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref> ''All'' living organisms have stressors and stress responses, but <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">this aticle deals only with those </ins>of <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">vertebrates</ins>. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By Selye's understanding, ''stress'' is not a reaction to any specific thing; it has a characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause; it might be produced by virtually any agent, and the effects can differ from one idividual to another <ref>Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity ''Stress'' 13:1-14. PMID: 20105052</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By Selye's understanding, ''stress'' is not a reaction to any specific thing; it has a characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause; it might be produced by virtually any agent, and the effects can differ from one idividual to another <ref>Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity ''Stress'' 13:1-14. PMID: 20105052</div></td></tr>
</table>
imported>Gareth Leng
https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Stress_(physiology)&diff=218051&oldid=prev
imported>Gareth Leng at 10:10, 22 December 2010
2010-12-22T10:10:58Z
<p></p>
<table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 05:10, 22 December 2010</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress''', as defined by [[Hans Selye]] (who is regarded as the first to formulate the concept of stress in physiological terms) is "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether is is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Stress as such, like temperature as such, is all-inclusive, embodying both the positive and the negative aspects of these concepts."<ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress''', as defined by [[Hans Selye]] (who is regarded as the first to formulate the concept of stress in physiological terms) is "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether is is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Stress as such, like temperature as such, is all-inclusive, embodying both the positive and the negative aspects of these concepts."<ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Selye H (1985) [http://www.icnr.com/articles/thenatureofstress.html The nature of stress]</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Selye H (1985) [http://www.icnr.com/articles/thenatureofstress.html The nature of stress]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref> <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">''All'' living organisms have stressors and stress responses, but the term is not used, by the National Library of Medicine, in indexing information on lower animals, plants or microorganisms. </ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">this </del>understanding, ''stress'' is not a reaction to any specific thing; it has a characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause; it might be produced by virtually any agent, and the effects can differ from one idividual to another <ref>Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity ''Stress'' 13:1-14. PMID: 20105052</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Selye's </ins>understanding, ''stress'' is not a reaction to any specific thing; it has a characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause; it might be produced by virtually any agent, and the effects can differ from one idividual to another <ref>Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity ''Stress'' 13:1-14. PMID: 20105052</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div></ref>. But stress is not a ''nonspecific'' reaction: it affects certain organs - notably the adrenal and the pituitary glands, the [[thymus]], and the [[gastrointestinal tract]] in a very selective manner. </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div></ref>. But stress is not a ''nonspecific'' reaction: <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">in animals, </ins>it affects certain organs - notably the adrenal and the pituitary glands, the [[thymus]], and the [[gastrointestinal tract]] in a very selective manner. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><blockquote>"Stress cannot and should not be avoided. Everybody is always under some degree of stress. Even while quietly asleep our heart must continue to beat, our lungs to breathe, and even our brain works in the form of dreams. Stress can be avoided only by dying." From 'The Nature of Stress'</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><blockquote>"Stress cannot and should not be avoided. Everybody is always under some degree of stress. Even while quietly asleep our heart must continue to beat, our lungs to breathe, and even our brain works in the form of dreams. Stress can be avoided only by dying." From 'The Nature of Stress'</div></td></tr>
</table>
imported>Gareth Leng
https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Stress_(physiology)&diff=218053&oldid=prev
imported>Gareth Leng at 10:07, 22 December 2010
2010-12-22T10:07:37Z
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 05:07, 22 December 2010</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By this understanding, ''stress'' is not a reaction to any specific thing; it has a characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause; it might be produced by virtually any agent. But stress is not a nonspecific reaction: it affects certain organs - notably the adrenal and the pituitary glands, the thymus, and the gastrointestinal tract in a very selective manner. </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By this understanding, ''stress'' is not a reaction to any specific thing; it has a characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause; it might be produced by virtually any agent<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">, and the effects can differ from one idividual to another <ref>Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity ''Stress'' 13:1-14. PMID: 20105052</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ref></ins>. But stress is not a <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">''</ins>nonspecific<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">'' </ins>reaction: it affects certain organs - notably the adrenal and the pituitary glands, the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[</ins>thymus<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">]]</ins>, and the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[</ins>gastrointestinal tract<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">]] </ins>in a very selective manner. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><blockquote>"Stress cannot and should not be avoided. Everybody is always under some degree of stress. Even while quietly asleep our heart must continue to beat, our lungs to breathe, and even our brain works in the form of dreams. Stress can be avoided only by dying." From 'The Nature of Stress'</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><blockquote>"Stress cannot and should not be avoided. Everybody is always under some degree of stress. Even while quietly asleep our heart must continue to beat, our lungs to breathe, and even our brain works in the form of dreams. Stress can be avoided only by dying." From 'The Nature of Stress'</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Any ''demand'' made upon the body - whether physical or emotional, whether from internal or external causes first produces a nonspecific stimulus (a "stressor"). This is converted into nervous signals that may be carried by any of many different neural pathways in the brain, but eventually it acts upon certain neuroendocrine cells in the [[paraventricular nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]]. These cells transform the nervous signals into a humoral messenger, (corticotrophin releasing hormone, CRH), which is secreted from nerve endings into portal blood vessels which carry it to the [[anterior pituitary]] gland. There, CRH stimulates the corticotroph cells to secrete [[adrenocorticotrophic hormone]] (ACTH) into the general circulation. Upon reaching the [[adrenal cortex]], ACTH causes secretion of [[glucocorticoid]]s ([[cortisol]] or [[corticosterone]]). These induce [[glyconeogenesis]], supplying energy for the adaptive reactions necessary to meet the demands faced by the body, facilitate other enzymatically regulated adaptive metabolic responses, and suppress immune reactions as well as inflammation.</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Any ''demand'' made upon the body - whether physical or emotional, whether from internal or external causes first produces a nonspecific stimulus (a "stressor"). This is converted into nervous signals that may be carried by any of many different neural pathways in the brain, but eventually it acts upon certain neuroendocrine cells in the [[paraventricular nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]]. These cells transform the nervous signals into a humoral messenger, (corticotrophin releasing hormone, CRH), which is secreted from nerve endings into portal blood vessels which carry it to the [[anterior pituitary]] gland. There, CRH stimulates the corticotroph cells to secrete [[adrenocorticotrophic hormone]] (ACTH) into the general circulation. Upon reaching the [[adrenal cortex]], ACTH causes secretion of [[glucocorticoid]]s ([[cortisol]] or [[corticosterone]]). These induce [[glyconeogenesis]], supplying energy for the adaptive reactions necessary to meet the demands faced by the body, facilitate other enzymatically regulated adaptive metabolic responses, and suppress immune reactions as well as inflammation. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Glucocorticoids subsequently feedback to the brain and pituitary to terminate the stress response by reducing the responsiveness of neurones in the hypothalamus and elsewhere, and by attenuating the synthesis of CRH and ACTH.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">This [[hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis]] (HPA axis) plays a pivotal role in physiological and behavioral adaptation to environmental change in all vertebrates: the proteins, gene structures, and signaling pathways of the HPA axis were present in the earliest vertebrates and appear to have been tightly conserved through subsequent evolution <ref>Denver RJ (2009) Structural and functional evolution of vertebrate neuroendocrine stress systems ''Ann N Y Acad Sci'' 1163:1-16 PMID 19456324</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ref> The HPA is organized hierarchically, with feedbacks operating at several points. In all vertebrates studied, the HPA axis is controlled centrally by peptides of the CRH family. These effects are mediated by at least two distinct G protein-coupled receptors and modulated by a secreted binding protein. These neuropeptides are also released within the brain and influence stress-related behaviors, such as [[anxiety]] and [[fear]]. </ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The "Fight or Flight" response==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The "Fight or Flight" response==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The ''flight or fight response'', also called the "acute stress response" was first described by Walter Cannon in the 1920s as a theory that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system.<ref>Cannon WB (1914) The emergency function of the adrenal medulla in pain and the major emotions. ''Am J Physiol'' 33:356-72</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The ''flight or fight response'', also called the "acute stress response" was first described by Walter Cannon in the 1920s as a theory that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system.<ref>Cannon WB (1914) The emergency function of the adrenal medulla in pain and the major emotions. ''Am J Physiol'' 33:356-72</ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>More recently, ethologists working with nonhuman primates have established four distinct fear responses that proceed sequentially in response to increasing threat. The sequence begins with "the freeze response" - "stop, look, and listen" . Next comes an attempt to flee, then an attempt to fight. Finally, comes tonic immobility. ("playing dead"). Thus, "freeze, flight, fight, or fright" may be a more complete and nuanced alternative to "fight or flight." <ref>Bracha HS ''et al.'' (2004) [http://psy.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/45/5/448 Does "Fight or Flight" need updating?] ''Psychosomatics'' 45:448-9</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>More recently, ethologists working with nonhuman primates have established four distinct fear responses that proceed sequentially in response to increasing threat. The sequence begins with "the freeze response" - "stop, look, and listen" . Next comes an attempt to flee, then an attempt to fight. Finally, comes tonic immobility. ("playing dead"). Thus, "freeze, flight, fight, or fright" may be a more complete and nuanced alternative to "fight or flight." <ref>Bracha HS ''et al.'' (2004) [http://psy.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/45/5/448 Does "Fight or Flight" need updating?] ''Psychosomatics'' 45:448-9</ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">==Chronic stress==</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*McEwen BS, Kalia M (2010) The role of corticosteroids and stress in chronic pain conditions.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">''Metabolism'' 59 Suppl 1:S9-15 PMID 20837196</ins></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Szabo S (1985) The creative and productive life of Hans Selye: a review of his major scientific discoveries ''Experientia'' 41:564–567</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Szabo S (1985) The creative and productive life of Hans Selye: a review of his major scientific discoveries ''Experientia'' 41:564–567</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div></ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div></ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*McEwen BS, Kalia M (2010) The role of corticosteroids and stress in chronic pain conditions.</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">''Metabolism'' 59 Suppl 1:S9-15 PMID 20837196</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity ''Stress'' 13:1-14. PMID: 20105052</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*Denver RJ (2009) Structural and functional evolution of vertebrate neuroendocrine stress systems</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">''Ann N Y Acad Sci'' 1163:1-16 PMID 19456324</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==References==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==References==</div></td></tr>
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</table>
imported>Gareth Leng
https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Stress_(physiology)&diff=218050&oldid=prev
imported>Gareth Leng: /* The "Fight or Flight" response */
2010-12-22T09:50:12Z
<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">The "Fight or Flight" response</span></span></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 04:50, 22 December 2010</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The "Fight or Flight" response==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The "Fight or Flight" response==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">A second pathway involved </del>in the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">stress mechanism acts through catecholamines released from autonomic nerve endings and from </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[</del>adrenal medulla<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">]]</del>. In response to acute stress, the [[chromaffin cell]]s of the adrenal medulla secrete the hormone [[epinephrine]] (adrenaline) into the general circulation. This provides readily available sources of energy by forming glucose from [[glycogen]] depots and [[free fatty acid]s from the triglyceride stores of [[adipocyte|adipose tissue]]; it quickens the pulse and raises arterial blood pressure, but also accelerates blood coagulation and thereby protects against blood loss in the event of injury.</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The ''flight or fight response'', also called the "acute stress response" was first described by Walter Cannon </ins>in the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">1920s as a theory that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system.<ref>Cannon WB (1914) The emergency function of </ins>the adrenal medulla <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">in pain and the major emotions. ''Am J Physiol'' 33:356-72</ref></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><ref>Cannon WB (1929) Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Research Into the Function of Emotional Excitement, 2nd ed</ins>. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts</ref> </ins>In response to acute stress, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[acetylcholine]] is released from preganglionic sympathetic nerves that innervate </ins>the [[chromaffin cell]]s of the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[</ins>adrenal medulla<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">]]. As a consequence, the chromaffin cells </ins>secrete the hormone [[epinephrine]] (adrenaline) into the general circulation. This provides readily available sources of energy by forming glucose from [[glycogen]] depots and [[free fatty acid]s from the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[</ins>triglyceride<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">]] </ins>stores of [[adipocyte|adipose tissue]]; it quickens the pulse and raises <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[</ins>arterial blood pressure<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">]]</ins>, but also accelerates blood <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[</ins>coagulation<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">]] </ins>and thereby protects against blood loss in the event of injury. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">More recently, ethologists working with nonhuman primates have established four distinct fear responses that proceed sequentially in response to increasing threat. The sequence begins with "the freeze response" - "stop, look, and listen" . Next comes an attempt to flee, then an attempt to fight. Finally, comes tonic immobility. ("playing dead"). Thus, "freeze, flight, fight, or fright" may be a more complete and nuanced alternative to "fight or flight." <ref>Bracha HS ''et al.'' (2004) [http://psy.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/45/5/448 Does "Fight or Flight" need updating?] ''Psychosomatics'' 45:448-9</ref></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ref></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Szabo S (1985) The creative and productive life of Hans Selye: a review of his major scientific discoveries ''Experientia'' 41:564–567</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Szabo S (1985) The creative and productive life of Hans Selye: a review of his major scientific discoveries ''Experientia'' 41:564–567</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div></ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div></ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*McEwen BS, Kalia M (2010) The role of corticosteroids and stress in chronic pain conditions.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">''Metabolism'' 59 Suppl 1:S9-15 PMID 20837196</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity ''Stress'' 13:1-14. PMID: 20105052</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*Denver RJ (2009) Structural and functional evolution of vertebrate neuroendocrine stress systems</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">''Ann N Y Acad Sci'' 1163:1-16 PMID 19456324</ins></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==References==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==References==</div></td></tr>
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</table>
imported>Gareth Leng
https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Stress_(physiology)&diff=218054&oldid=prev
imported>Gareth Leng at 09:20, 22 December 2010
2010-12-22T09:20:26Z
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<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress''', as defined by Hans Selye<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">, </del>who is regarded as the first to formulate the concept of stress in physiological terms<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">, </del>is "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether is is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Stress as such, like temperature as such, is all-inclusive, embodying both the positive and the negative aspects of these concepts."<ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress''', as defined by <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[</ins>Hans Selye<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">]] (</ins>who is regarded as the first to formulate the concept of stress in physiological terms<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">) </ins>is "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether is is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Stress as such, like temperature as such, is all-inclusive, embodying both the positive and the negative aspects of these concepts."<ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Selye H (1985) [http://www.icnr.com/articles/thenatureofstress.html The nature of stress]</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Selye H (1985) [http://www.icnr.com/articles/thenatureofstress.html The nature of stress]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''Basal Facts''. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ref></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>by Hans Selye </blockquote></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>by Hans Selye </blockquote></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis==</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">==</ins>The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Any ''demand'' made upon the body - whether physical or emotional, whether from internal or external causes first produces a nonspecific stimulus (a "stressor"). This is converted into nervous signals that may be carried by any of many different neural pathways in the brain, but eventually it acts upon certain neuroendocrine cells in the [[paraventricular nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]]. These cells transform the nervous signals into a humoral messenger, (corticotrophin releasing hormone, CRH), which is secreted from nerve endings into portal blood vessels which carry it to the [[anterior pituitary]] gland. There, CRH stimulates the corticotroph cells to secrete [[adrenocorticotrophic hormone]] (ACTH) into the general circulation. Upon reaching the [[adrenal cortex]], ACTH causes secretion of [[glucocorticoid]]s ([[cortisol]] or [[corticosterone]]). These induce [[glyconeogenesis]], supplying energy for the adaptive reactions necessary to meet the demands faced by the body, facilitate other enzymatically regulated adaptive metabolic responses, and suppress immune reactions as well as inflammation. </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Any ''demand'' made upon the body - whether physical or emotional, whether from internal or external causes first produces a nonspecific stimulus (a "stressor"). This is converted into nervous signals that may be carried by any of many different neural pathways in the brain, but eventually it acts upon certain neuroendocrine cells in the [[paraventricular nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]]. These cells transform the nervous signals into a humoral messenger, (corticotrophin releasing hormone, CRH), which is secreted from nerve endings into portal blood vessels which carry it to the [[anterior pituitary]] gland. There, CRH stimulates the corticotroph cells to secrete [[adrenocorticotrophic hormone]] (ACTH) into the general circulation. Upon reaching the [[adrenal cortex]], ACTH causes secretion of [[glucocorticoid]]s ([[cortisol]] or [[corticosterone]]). These induce [[glyconeogenesis]], supplying energy for the adaptive reactions necessary to meet the demands faced by the body, facilitate other enzymatically regulated adaptive metabolic responses, and suppress immune reactions as well as inflammation.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The "Fight or Flight" response==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==The "Fight or Flight" response==</div></td></tr>
</table>
imported>Gareth Leng
https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Stress_(physiology)&diff=218055&oldid=prev
imported>Gareth Leng at 09:19, 22 December 2010
2010-12-22T09:19:36Z
<p></p>
<table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 04:19, 22 December 2010</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l11">Line 11:</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>by Hans Selye </blockquote></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>by Hans Selye </blockquote></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Any ''demand'' made upon the body - whether physical or emotional, whether from internal or external causes first produces a nonspecific stimulus (a "stressor<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">''</del>). This is converted into nervous signals that may be carried by any of many different neural pathways in the brain, but eventually it acts upon certain neuroendocrine cells in the [[paraventricular nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]]. These cells transform the nervous signals into a humoral messenger, (corticotrophin releasing hormone, CRH), which is secreted from nerve endings into portal blood vessels which carry it to the [[anterior pituitary]] gland. There, CRH stimulates the corticotroph cells to secrete [[adrenocorticotrophic hormone]] (ACTH) into the general circulation. Upon reaching the [[adrenal cortex]], ACTH causes secretion of [[glucocorticoid]]s ([[cortisol]] or [[corticosterone]]). These induce [[glyconeogenesis]], supplying energy for the adaptive reactions necessary to meet the demands faced by the body, facilitate other enzymatically regulated adaptive metabolic responses, and suppress immune reactions as well as inflammation. </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis==</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Any ''demand'' made upon the body - whether physical or emotional, whether from internal or external causes first produces a nonspecific stimulus (a "stressor<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">"</ins>). This is converted into nervous signals that may be carried by any of many different neural pathways in the brain, but eventually it acts upon certain neuroendocrine cells in the [[paraventricular nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]]. These cells transform the nervous signals into a humoral messenger, (corticotrophin releasing hormone, CRH), which is secreted from nerve endings into portal blood vessels which carry it to the [[anterior pituitary]] gland. There, CRH stimulates the corticotroph cells to secrete [[adrenocorticotrophic hormone]] (ACTH) into the general circulation. Upon reaching the [[adrenal cortex]], ACTH causes secretion of [[glucocorticoid]]s ([[cortisol]] or [[corticosterone]]). These induce [[glyconeogenesis]], supplying energy for the adaptive reactions necessary to meet the demands faced by the body, facilitate other enzymatically regulated adaptive metabolic responses, and suppress immune reactions as well as inflammation. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">==The "Fight or Flight" response==</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>A second pathway involved in the stress mechanism acts through catecholamines released from autonomic nerve endings and from the [[adrenal medulla]]. In response to acute stress, the [[chromaffin cell]]s of the adrenal medulla secrete the hormone [[epinephrine]] (adrenaline) into the general circulation. This provides readily available sources of energy by forming glucose from [[glycogen]] depots and [[free fatty acid]s from the triglyceride stores of [[adipocyte|adipose tissue]]; it quickens the pulse and raises arterial blood pressure, but also accelerates blood coagulation and thereby protects against blood loss in the event of injury.</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>A second pathway involved in the stress mechanism acts through catecholamines released from autonomic nerve endings and from the [[adrenal medulla]]. In response to acute stress, the [[chromaffin cell]]s of the adrenal medulla secrete the hormone [[epinephrine]] (adrenaline) into the general circulation. This provides readily available sources of energy by forming glucose from [[glycogen]] depots and [[free fatty acid]s from the triglyceride stores of [[adipocyte|adipose tissue]]; it quickens the pulse and raises arterial blood pressure, but also accelerates blood coagulation and thereby protects against blood loss in the event of injury.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
</table>
imported>Gareth Leng
https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Stress_(physiology)&diff=218052&oldid=prev
imported>Gareth Leng at 09:18, 22 December 2010
2010-12-22T09:18:00Z
<p></p>
<table style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122;" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 04:18, 22 December 2010</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{subpages}}</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{subpages}}</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{dambigbox|the pathological process|Stress}}</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{dambigbox|the pathological process|Stress}}</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress''' is <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">a pathological process resulting from </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">reaction </del>of the body to <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">external forces </del>and <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">abnormal conditions that tend to disturb </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">organism's homeostasis</del>. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The term includes "aggressology</del>" (<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">French</del>: <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">aggressologie) & the French "aggression"</del>. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><ref></del>''<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Medical Subject Headings</del>''<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">, National Library of Medicine</del></ref> <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">"The body" is not limited to that of humans; all living organisms have stressors and stress responses, but the term is not used, by the National Library of Medicine, in indexing information on lower animals, plants or microorganisms.</del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">{{subpages}}</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">==Stress and the endocrine system==</del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Stress'''<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">, as defined by Hans Selye, who </ins>is <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">regarded as the first to formulate </ins>the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">concept of stress in physiological terms, is "the nonspecific response </ins>of the body to <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">any demand, whether is is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions. Stress as such, like temperature as such, is all-inclusive, embodying both the positive </ins>and the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">negative aspects of these concepts</ins>."<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><ref></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Selye H </ins>(<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">1985) [http</ins>:<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">//www.icnr.com/articles/thenatureofstress</ins>.<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">html </ins> <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The nature of stress]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>''<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Basal Facts</ins>''<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">. 1985;7:3-11 PMID 2990402</ins></ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The major [[hormone|hormones]] that are </del>produced <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">during </del>stress <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">are </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[</del>adrenal glands<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">]]' secretion of [[catecholamines]]</del>, <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[glucocorticoid|glucocorticoids]] </del>and <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[DHEA]]. <ref name=Phillips>{{citation</del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">By this understanding, ''stress'' is not a reaction to any specific thing; it has a characteristic form and composition, but no particular cause; it might be </ins>produced <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">by virtually any agent. But </ins>stress <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">is not a nonspecific reaction: it affects certain organs - notably </ins>the adrenal <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">and the pituitary </ins>glands, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">the thymus, </ins>and the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">gastrointestinal tract in a very selective manner</ins>. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"> | author = Phillips AC. Burns VE. Lord JM. </del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"> | title = Stress and exercise: Getting </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">balance right for aging immunity</del>. </div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"> | journal = Exercise & Sport Sciences Reviews</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"> | volume = 35</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"> | issue = 1</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"> | pages = 35-9</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"> | date= 2007 January</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"> | UI= 17211192}}</ref></del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">==</del>Stress and <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">the immune system==</del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><blockquote>"</ins>Stress <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">cannot </ins>and <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">should not be avoided. Everybody is always under some degree of stress. Even while quietly asleep our heart must continue to beat, our lungs to breathe</ins>, <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">and even our brain works in </ins>the <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">form of dreams</ins>. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Stress </ins>can be <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">avoided only </ins>by <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">dying</ins>.<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">" From 'The Nature of Stress'</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">"The major glucocorticoid</del>, <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[cortisol]] (a [[prednisone]]-like anti-inflammatory [[steroid]]) reduces </del>the <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[immune system|immune]] response</del>. <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"> [[In vitro]] studies have shown that cortisol suppresses [[neutrophil]] function, and this </del>can be <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">overcome </del>by <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">coincubation with DHEA sulfate. catecholamines and cortisol can both be immunosuppressive if chronically elevated... In contrast, DHEA is a precursor to sex hormones and is immune enhancing</del>.<<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">ref name=Phillips </del>/></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">by Hans Selye </ins></<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">blockquote</ins>></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">==Stress reduction==</del></div></td><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-added"></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Any ''demand'' made upon the body - whether physical or emotional, whether from internal or external causes first produces a nonspecific stimulus (a "stressor''). This is converted into nervous signals that may be carried by any of many different neural pathways in the brain, but eventually it acts upon certain neuroendocrine cells in the [[paraventricular nucleus]] of the [[hypothalamus]]. These cells transform the nervous signals into a humoral messenger, (corticotrophin releasing hormone, CRH), which is secreted from nerve endings into portal blood vessels which carry it to the [[anterior pituitary]] gland. There, CRH stimulates the corticotroph cells to secrete [[adrenocorticotrophic hormone]] (ACTH) into the general circulation. Upon reaching the [[adrenal cortex]], ACTH causes secretion of [[glucocorticoid]]s ([[cortisol]] or [[corticosterone]]). These induce [[glyconeogenesis]], supplying energy for the adaptive reactions necessary to meet the demands faced by the body, facilitate other enzymatically regulated adaptive metabolic responses, and suppress immune reactions as well as inflammation. </ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">A second pathway involved in the stress mechanism acts through catecholamines released from autonomic nerve endings and from the [[adrenal medulla]]. In response to acute stress, the [[chromaffin cell]]s of the adrenal medulla secrete the hormone [[epinephrine]] (adrenaline) into the general circulation. This provides readily available sources of energy by forming glucose from [[glycogen]] depots and [[free fatty acid]s from the triglyceride stores of [[adipocyte|adipose tissue]]; it quickens the pulse and raises arterial blood pressure, but also accelerates blood coagulation and thereby protects against blood loss in the event of injury.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><ref></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">'''Hans Selye'''</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*Selye H (1950)Stress and the general adaptation syndrome ''Br Med J'' 1:1383-92 PMID 15426759</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*Selye H (1976) The stress concept ''Can Med Assoc J'' 115:718 PMID 20312787 </ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*Selye H (1976) Forty years of stress research: principal remaining problems and misconceptions ''Can Med Assoc J'' 115:53-6 PMID 1277062 </ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*Neylan TC (1998) [http://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/reprint/10/2/230a.pdf Hans Selye and the Field of. Stress Research]. ''J Neuropsych'' 10:230</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">*Szabo S (1985) The creative and productive life of Hans Selye: a review of his major scientific discoveries ''Experientia'' 41:564–567</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ref></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==References==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==References==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">{{reflist}}</del></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><references/></ins></div></td></tr>
</table>
imported>Gareth Leng