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| | '''Stephen Krashen''' is an emeritus professor of [[education]] at the [[University of Southern California]]. His research concerns [[second language acquisition]] (SLA), [[bilingual education]], [[literacy]] and [[neurolinguistics]]. His work seeks to inform policy on bilingual education<ref>Krashen (1996).</ref> and [[reading]] instruction, being supportive of the ''[[whole language]]'' reading methodology.<ref>e.g. Krashen (1999).</ref> In SLA and [[applied linguistics]] his "five hypotheses" about [[language acquisition]], collectively known as ''[[monitor theory]]'',<ref>Krashen rarely uses the term ''monitor theory'' term in his books. He ''does'' refer to them as one theory, however, e.g. Krashen & Terrell (1983: 26), and in academic discussion he has explicitly used the term ''monitor theory'' to mean the five hypotheses, e.g. Krashen (1981b: 219-220).</ref> remain influential in both theoretical [[linguistics]] and [[language teaching]], and he also developed the [[comprehension approach|comprehension-based]] ''[[natural approach]]'' to second language learning with [[Tracy D. Terrell]].<ref>Krashen & Terrell (1983).</ref> |
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| '''Stephen Krashen''', [[professor emeritus]] at the [[University of Southern California]], is a highly acclaimed [[linguist]], [[educatio]]nal researcher and [[activism|activist]]. He is best known for his contributions to the fields of [[second language acquisition]] (SLA), [[bilingual education]] and [[reading]].
| | ==Monitor theory== |
| | | {{main|Monitor theory}} |
| Krashen was born in [[Chicago]] in 1941. After spending two years in the [[Peace Corps]] in [[Ethiopia]], where he taught eighth grade [[English language|English]] and [[science]], Krashen pursued a PhD in [[linguistics]] at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], culminating with his 1972 dissertation ''[[Language]] and the Left [[Hemisphere]]''. Krashen accepted a position as a postdoctoral fellow at the UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute, then went on to serve as professor of linguistics at the [[CUNY Graduate Center]] and the Linguistics Department of the University of Southern California. In 1994, Krashen joined the USC School of Education.
| | ''Monitor theory'' states that adult learners have two systems to enable them to develop their language ability: subconscious ''acquisition'' and conscious ''learning'', with acquisition being more important. Conscious learning is only available as a "monitor", i.e. learners can consciously 'edit' their 'output' (utterances or written work) to make themselves more fluent or comprehensible, based on what they have formally learned about the second language (e.g. through a focus on [[grammar]] in the classroom). This, however, has no effect on subconscious, true acquisition, and in its absence, output will be less 'accurate' or native speaker-like.<ref>Krashen (1981a: 1-2).</ref> The model has been strongly criticised due to the prevailing mood in [[applied linguistics]] that learned knowledge ''does'' form part of true acquisition, though many of its conclusions are shared, directly or indirectly, by theoretical linguists and teachers.<ref>See e.g. [[Martha Young-Scholten|Young-Scholten]] (1999) for a theoretical perspective. See e.g. Scrivener (2005:19), a handbook for teachers, which points out that the alternative of a strong focus on explicit instruction has proved of little help to beginning learners. See Gregg (1984) for a strong critique of Krashen's hypotheses.</ref> |
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| Krashen has published over 350 papers and books, and has presented keynote and plenary addresses at the [[National Association for Bilingual Education]], [[Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages]] (TESOL), the [[International Association for Applied Linguistics]], the [[International Association of School Librarians]], the [[Georgetown Round Table on Languages and Linguistics]], and many other conferences.
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| ==Research==
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| {{langacq}}
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| ===Monitor theory and the natural approach===
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| {{seealso|monitor theory}} | |
| Krashen is best known for his work in establishing a general theory of [[second language acquisition]], commonly called ''[[monitor theory]]'', as the co-founder (with [[Tracy D. Terrell]]) of the [[comprehension approach|comprehension-based]] ''[[natural approach]]'' to second language learning, and as the inventor of ''sheltered instruction''. A central element of Krashen’s approach to second language acquisition is the view that it occurs naturally, just like [[first language acquisition]], under appropriate conditions. This view constituted a dramatic shift from an earlier position in Krashen's published work reflecting a commitment to direct instruction and consistent error correction.
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| In a seminar at the CUNY Graduate Center in 1975, Krashen and his students sought to make sense of data pertaining to a fixed pattern of acquisition of grammatical [[morpheme]]s from second language speakers. During the seminar, Krashen came up with the idea that two systems, an acquired one and a learned one, must be postulated to explain the data.
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| One of Krashen's most important ideas is that in order for a learner to acquire a language, they must be exposed to 'comprehensible input' which is roughly tuned to a level slightly higher than their own performance. He distinguishes this from 'learned' language. language learners must build on their knowledge through processing language at a level slightly beyond their ability: 'current competence + 1' (i +1).<ref>Krashen (1982), p. 21.</ref> This is also known as [[instructional scaffolding]].
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| 'Acquisition' occurs in communicative situations, where [[meaning]] is exchanged. 'Learning' occurs through formal training (e.g. a focus on [[grammar]] in the classroom); it cannot be used to restructure the learner's intuitive competence in the second language. Instead, it 'monitors' the use of 'acquired' language knowledge, possibly able to 'clean up' performance when the learner focuses their attention on producing 'accurate' language.
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| Krashen and Terrell also penned a piece on the natural approach (1983), which is more or less a continuation of the comprehensible input theme with the added idea that [[affective filter]]s or [[emotion]]al barriers must be lowered in order for learning to take place. | |
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| ===Reading===
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| Krashen has also contributed extensively to an approach in reading known as [[whole Language]], which similarly posits that children learn to read by reading, and that reading develops naturally under appropriate conditions. Krashen has advocated '[[free voluntary reading]]' programs (known as 'silent sustained reading') as an approach to literacy development, and has stressed the importance of [[library|libraries]].
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| ===Bilingual education===
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| Krashen maintained that [[bilingual education]] serves to fill in a contextual space against which input may be effectively and efficiently processed by learners. Hence, he maintained that bilingual education was an important component of an [[immigration|immigrant]] child’s educational program, serving to provide academic content knowledge as well as an understanding of school subject matter which improved the child’s comprehension of English-mediated teaching. Krashen has been a strong advocate of both ''heritage language education'' and the ''graduate exit model'', a kind of bilingual maintenance program.
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| ====Controversy====
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| As education policy in Krashen’s home state of [[California]] became increasingly hostile to bilingualism, he responded with research critical of the new policies, public speaking engagements, and with letters written to newspaper editors. During the campaign to enact an anti-bilingual education law in California in 1998, known as Proposition 227, Krashen campaigned aggressively in public forums, media talk shows, and conducted numerous interviews with journalists writing on the subject. After other anti-bilingual education campaigns and attempts to enact regressive language education policies surfaced around the country, by 2006 it was estimated that Krashen had submitted well over 1,000 letters to editors.
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| In a front-page ''[[New Times Los Angeles]]'' [http://www.angelfire.com/az/english4thechildren/krashen.html article] published just a week before the vote on Proposition 227, Jill Stewart penned an aggressive article titled 'Krashen Burn' in which she characterized Krashen as wedded to the monied interests of a "multi-million-dollar bilingual education industry." Stewart critically and incorrectly spoke of Krashen as the father of bilingual education, and made a number of inaccurate statements. Krashen has been widely criticized in [[conservative]] and nativist political circles due to his influence on the field of language minority education, second language acquisition, and his tireless efforts to educate the public on matters related to English language learners in schools.
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| Krashen has been an advocate for a more activist role by researchers in combating the public's misconceptions about bilingual education. Addressing the question of how to explain public opposition to bilingual education, Krashen queried, "Is it due to a stubborn disinformation campaign on the part of newspapers and other news media to deliberately destroy bilingual education? Or is it due to the failure of the profession to present its side of the story to reporters? There is a great deal of anecdotal evidence in support of the latter." Continuing, Krashen wrote, "Without a serious, dedicated and organized campaign to explain and defend bilingual education at the national level, in a very short time we will have nothing left to defend."
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| ==Other pursuits==
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| Krashen plays the piano, holds a black belt in [[Taekwondo]], and was the 1978 Incline Bench Press Champion of [[Venice Beach]], California. When the [[governor of California]], [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], publically advised members of the [[Hispanic]] community to refrain from speaking [[Spanish language|Spanish]] in order to better-learn English, Krashen revealed that he had attended the same [[gymnasium|gym]] as Schwarzenegger in the 1970s; according to Krashen, the recently-arrived [[Austria]]n immigrant mostly spoke [[German language|German]] for several years.<ref>''Stephen Krashen's Mailing List'': '[http://sdkrashen.com/pipermail/krashen_sdkrashen.com/2007-June/000802.html Governor: Speaking of English (published in Daily Breeze)]'. 19th June 2007.</ref>
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| ==Footnotes== | | ==Footnotes== |
| <div class="references-2column">
| | {{reflist|2}} |
| <references/>
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| </div>
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| ==References==
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| *Krashen SD (1982) ''Principles and practice in second language learning and acquisition.'' Oxford: Pergamon.
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| ==External links==
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| *[http://sdkrashen.com sdkrashen.com] - some of Stephen D. Krashen's books and articles, available on-line.
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| *[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/Krashen.htm Krashen's Comprehension Hypothesis Model of L2 learning] - [[applied linguistics|applied linguist]] Vivian Cook's page on Krashen's hypotheses.
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| ==See also==
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| *[[Second language acquisition]]
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| *[[Monitor theory]]
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| *[[Comprehension approach]]
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| *[[Critical period hypothesis]]
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Stephen Krashen is an emeritus professor of education at the University of Southern California. His research concerns second language acquisition (SLA), bilingual education, literacy and neurolinguistics. His work seeks to inform policy on bilingual education[1] and reading instruction, being supportive of the whole language reading methodology.[2] In SLA and applied linguistics his "five hypotheses" about language acquisition, collectively known as monitor theory,[3] remain influential in both theoretical linguistics and language teaching, and he also developed the comprehension-based natural approach to second language learning with Tracy D. Terrell.[4]
Monitor theory
- For more information, see: Monitor theory.
Monitor theory states that adult learners have two systems to enable them to develop their language ability: subconscious acquisition and conscious learning, with acquisition being more important. Conscious learning is only available as a "monitor", i.e. learners can consciously 'edit' their 'output' (utterances or written work) to make themselves more fluent or comprehensible, based on what they have formally learned about the second language (e.g. through a focus on grammar in the classroom). This, however, has no effect on subconscious, true acquisition, and in its absence, output will be less 'accurate' or native speaker-like.[5] The model has been strongly criticised due to the prevailing mood in applied linguistics that learned knowledge does form part of true acquisition, though many of its conclusions are shared, directly or indirectly, by theoretical linguists and teachers.[6]
- ↑ Krashen (1996).
- ↑ e.g. Krashen (1999).
- ↑ Krashen rarely uses the term monitor theory term in his books. He does refer to them as one theory, however, e.g. Krashen & Terrell (1983: 26), and in academic discussion he has explicitly used the term monitor theory to mean the five hypotheses, e.g. Krashen (1981b: 219-220).
- ↑ Krashen & Terrell (1983).
- ↑ Krashen (1981a: 1-2).
- ↑ See e.g. Young-Scholten (1999) for a theoretical perspective. See e.g. Scrivener (2005:19), a handbook for teachers, which points out that the alternative of a strong focus on explicit instruction has proved of little help to beginning learners. See Gregg (1984) for a strong critique of Krashen's hypotheses.
