Pseudoscience

Phrenology is regarded today as a classic example of pseudoscience.

A pseudoscience is any body of alleged knowledge, methodology, belief, or practice that claims to be scientific but does not follow the scientific method. 

The term pseudoscience appears to have been first used in 1843 as a combination of the Greek root pseudo, meaning false, and the Latin scientia, meaning knowledge or a field of knowledge. It generally has negative connotations, because it asserts that things so labeled are inaccurately or deceptively described as science. As such, those labeled as practicing or advocating a "pseudoscience" normally reject this classification.

Introduction

The standards for determining whether a body of alleged knowledge, methodology, or practice is scientific can vary from field to field, but involve agreed principles including reproducibility and intersubjective verifiability. Such principles aim to ensure that relevant evidence can be reproduced and/or measured given the same conditions, which allows further investigation to determine whether a hypothesis or theory related to given phenomena is both valid and reliable for use by others, including other scientists and researchers. Scientific methods are expected to be applied throughout, and bias is expected to be controlled or eliminated, by double-blind studies, or statistically through fair sampling procedures. All gathered data, including experimental/environmental conditions, are expected to be documented for scrutiny and made available for peer review, thereby allowing further experiments or studies to be conducted to confirm or falsify results, as well as to determine other important factors such as statistical significance, confidence intervals, and margins of error. Fulfillment of these requirements allows others a reasonable opportunity to assess whether to rely upon the reported results in their own scientific work or in a particular field of applied science, technology, therapy, or other form of practice.

In the mid-20th Century Karl Popper suggested the additional criterion of falsifiability. Some theories cannot be proven false under any circumstance, for example, the theory that God created the universe. Such theories may be true or false, but are not scientific; they lie outside the scope of (at least present-day) science; Popper differentiated between mythological, religious or metaphysical formulations (which may prefigure later scientific theories but do not follow a scientific methodology), and pseudoscientific formulations — though without providing a clear definition of each. Popper said a hypothesis or theory must be empirically verifiable and that scientific propositions should be limited to statements that are capable of being shown false through experiment. Another criterion applicable to theoretical work is the heuristic of parsimony, also known as Occam's Razor. This principle says the most simple explanation for the evidence is preferred over explanations needing additional assumptions.

Some historians and philosophers of science (including Paul Feyerabend) argue, from a sociology of knowledge perspective, that a distinction between science and pseudoscience is neither possible nor desirable.  Among the issues which can make the distinction difficult are that both the theories and methodologies of science evolve at differing rates in response to new data. In addition, the specific standards applicable to one field of science may not be those employed in other fields.

Some critics of pseudoscience such as Richard Dawkins, Mario Bunge, Carl Sagan, and James Randi consider all forms of pseudoscience to be harmful, whether or not they result in immediate harm to their adherents. These critics generally consider that pseudoscience may occur for a number of reasons, ranging from simple naïveté about the nature of science and the scientific method, to deliberate deception for financial or political gain. At the extreme, issues of personal health and safety may be very directly involved, for example in the case of physical or mental therapy or treatment, or in assessing safety risks. In such instances the potential for direct harm to patients, clients or even the general public may be an issue in assessing pseudoscience. (See also: Junk science.)

The concept of pseudoscience as antagonistic to bona fide science appears to have emerged in the mid-19th century. The second recorded use of the word "pseudo-science" appears to have been in 1844 in the Northern Journal of Medicine, I 387: "That opposite kind of innovation which pronounces what has been recognised as a branch of science, to have been a pseudo-science, composed merely of so-called facts, connected together by misapprehensions under the disguise of principles".

Identifying pseudoscience

A field, practice, or body of knowledge is reasonably called pseudoscience or pseudoscientific when (1) it has presented itself as scientific (i.e., as empirically and experimentally verifiable); and (2) it fails to meet the accepted norms of scientific research, most importantly the use of scientific method.   Within the various expectations of legitimate scientific methodology, by far the most important is that of making data and methodology available for close scrutiny by other scientists and researchers, as well as making available any additional relevant information used to arrive at particular results or methods of practice. To the degree that thorough documentation of data and method is unavailable for detailed scrutiny by others, a body of knowledge, practice, or field of inquiry will tend, as a result, to meet at least several of the characteristics of pseudoscience introduced below.

The following characteristics have been argued by the cited authors to be useful in identifying pseudoscience.

Use of vague, exaggerated or untestable claims

• Assertion of scientific claims that are vague rather than precise, and that lack specific measurements as a basis .
• Failure to make use of operational definitions 
• Failure to adhere to the principle of parsimony, i.e. failing to seek an explanation that requires the fewest possible additional assumptions when multiple viable explanations are possible (see: Occam's Razor) 
• Use of obscurantist language. Many proponents of pseudoscience use grandiose or highly technical jargon in an effort to provide their disciplines with the superficial trappings of science.
• Lack of boundary conditions: Most well-supported scientific theories possess boundary conditions (well articulated limitations) under which the predicted phenomena do and do not apply. In contrast, many or most pseudoscientific phenomena are purported to operate across an exceedingly wide range of conditions.

For example, vitalism, a concept used in many therapies considered pseudoscientific such as those involving qi, prana, or innate intelligence, is largely untestable as there is no proposed way to measure the proposed energy fields or flows stated as the mechanism of action (Williams 2000:367).

Over-reliance on confirmation rather than refutation

• Assertion of scientific claims that cannot be falsified in the event they are incorrect, inaccurate, or irrelevant (see also: falsifiability)  
• Assertion of claims that a theory predicts something that it has not been shown to predict (see, e.g.:validity, relevance, Ignoratio elenchi; Argument from ignorance)   
• Assertion that claims which have not been proven false must be true, and vice versa (see: Argument from ignorance)  
• Overreliance on testimonials and anecdotes. Testimonial and anecdotal evidence can be useful for discovery (i.e., hypothesis generation) but should not be used in the context of justification (i.e., hypothesis testing). Proponents of pseudoscientific claims frequently invoke reports from selected cases as evidence for these claims.
• Selective use of experimental evidence: presentation of data that seems to support its own claims while suppressing or refusing to consider data that conflict with its claims 
• Reversed burden of proof. In science, the burden of proof rests on the individual making a claim, not on the critic. Proponents of a pseudoscience frequently neglect this principle and demand that skeptics demonstrate beyond a reasonable doubt that a claim (e.g., an assertion regarding the efficacy of a novel therapeutic technique) is false. It is essentially impossible to prove a universal negative, so this tactic incorrectly places the burden of proof on the skeptic rather than the claimant.
• Appeals to holism: Proponents of pseudoscientific claims, especially in organic medicine, alternative medicine, naturopathy and mental health, often resort to the “mantra of holism” to explain negative findings.

For example, according to Williams (2000), Intelligent design is considered unfalsifiable and pseudoscientific because it is impossible to disprove the existence of the designer (God). Lilienfeld et al (2004) state that Alternative medicine is sometimes stated to be holistic so that negative findings cannot be concluded, and according to Hines (1988) proponents of extra-sensory perception (ESP) have interpreted isolated cases of worse than chance performance on parapsychological tasks as evidence of ESP.

Lack of openness to testing by other experts

• Evasion of peer review before publicizing them (called "science by press conference")     Many proponents of pseudoscience avoid subjecting their work to the often ego-bruising process of peer review, sometimes on the grounds that peer review is inherently biased against claims that contradict established paradigms, and sometimes on the grounds that assertions cannot be evaluated adequately using standard scientific methods. By remaining insulated from the peer review process, some proponents of pseudoscience forego an invaluable opportunity to obtain corrective feedback from informed colleagues..
• Failure to provide adequate information for other researchers to reproduce the claimed results 
• Assertion of claims of secrecy or proprietary knowledge in response to requests for review of data or methodology 

Lack of progress

• Failure to progress towards additional evidence of its claims  
• Lack of self correction: both scientific and pseudoscientific research programmes make mistakes, but most scientific research programs tend to eliminate these errors over time, whereas most pseudoscientific research programs do not. Intellectual stagnation is a hallmark of most pseudoscientific research programs. 

For example, astrology has changed very little in the past two millenia (Hines, 1988).

Personalization of issues

• Tight social groups and granfalloons. Authoritarian personality, suppression of dissent, and groupthink can enhance the adoption of pseudoscientific beliefs. In attempting to confirm their pseudoscience (confirmation bias), the group tends to identify critics of the pseudoscience as enemies, whereupon the group generates a set of arguments against critics.
• Assertion of claims of a conspiracy on the part of the scientific community to suppress the results 
• Attacking the motives or character of anyone who questions the claims (see Ad hominem fallacy.)  

Subjects may be considered pseudoscientific for various reasons and with an emphasis on particular characteristics; Popper considered astrology to be pseudoscientific simply because astrologers keep their claims so vague that they could never be refuted, whereas Thagard considers astrology pseudoscientific because its practitioners make little effort to develop the theory, show no concern for attempts to critically evaluate the theory in relation to others, and are selective in considering evidence. More generally, Thagard also stated that pseudoscience tends to focus on resemblances rather than cause-effect relations. "Mistaking correlation for causation is the basis of most superstitious beliefs, including many in the area of alternative medicine. We have a tendency to assume that when things occur together, they must be causally connected, although obviously they need not be" (Beyerstein 1997).

Some characteristics that are often true of pseudoscience are also true to some extent of some new genuinely scientific work. These include:

• claims or theories unconnected to previous experimental results
• claims which contradict experimentally established results
• work failing to operate on standard definitions of concepts
• emotion-based resistance, by the scientific community, to new claims or theories 

Pseudoscience is also distinguishable from revelation, theology, or spirituality in that it claims to offer insight into the physical world obtained by "scientific" means. Systems of thought that derive from "divine" or "inspired" knowledge are not considered pseudoscience if they do not claim either to be scientific or to overturn well-established science.

Some statements and commonly held beliefs in popular science may not meet the criteria of science. "Pop" science may blur the divide between science and pseudoscience among the general public, and may also involve science fiction. Indeed, pop science is defined by the fact that it is disseminated to, and can also easily emanate from, persons not accountable to scientific methodology and expert peer review.

Another class of pseudoscience dubbed pseudoskepticism by the late professor of sociology, Marcello Truzzi, refers to a non-rigorous skepticism that is itself erroneously presented as skepticism, and taking a stance of denial, rather than doubt. Truzzi noted that while "Many claims of anomalies are bunk and deserve proper debunking .. those I term scoffers often make judgements without full inquiry" The term "pseudoscience" may also be used by adherents of fields considered pseudoscientific to criticize their mainstream critics and vice versa, in which case the appearance is of two opposing camps both accusing each other of pseudoscience.

Pseudoscience contrasted with protoscience

Template:Verify Pseudoscience also differs from protoscience. Protoscience is a term sometimes used to describe a hypothesis that has not yet been adequately tested by the scientific method, but which is otherwise consistent with existing science or which, where inconsistent, offers reasonable account of the inconsistency. It may also describe the transition from a body of practical knowledge into a scientific field.

Pseudoscience, in contrast, is characteristically inadequately tested; indeed, it may even be untestable in principle. If tests appear to contradict its evidence, supporters may insist that the existing scientific results are false. Pseudoscience is often unresponsive to ordinary scientific procedures (for example, peer review, publication in standard journals). If untestable claims have been made, the failure to test and disprove these claims is often cited as evidence of the truth of the pseudoscience.

The boundaries between pseudoscience, protoscience, and "real" science are often unclear to non-specialist observers and sometimes even to experts. Especially where there is a significant cultural or historical distance (as, for example, modern chemistry reflecting on alchemy), protosciences can be misinterpreted as pseudoscientific. Many people have tried to offer objective distinctions, with mixed success. Often the term pseudoscience is used simply as a pejorative to express the speaker's low opinion of a given field, regardless of any objective measures.

If the claims of a given field can be experimentally tested and methodological standards are upheld, it is real scientific work, however odd, astonishing, or counter-intuitive. If claims made are inconsistent with existing experimental results or established theory, but the methodology is sound, caution should be used; much of science consists of testing hypotheses that turn out to be false. In such a case, the work may be better described as as yet unproven or research in progress. Conversely, if the claims of any given "science" cannot be experimentally tested or scientific standards are not upheld in these tests, it fails to meet the modern criteria for a science.

Demarcation problem and criticisms of the concept of pseudoscience

After over a century of dialogue among philosophers of science and scientists in varied fields, and despite broad agreement on the basics of scientific method, the boundaries between science and non-science continue to be debated. This is known as the problem of demarcation.

Many commentators and practitioners of science, as well as supporters of fields of inquiry and practices labelled as pseudoscience, question the rigor of the demarcationTemplate:Fact, as some disciplines now accepted as science previously had features cited as those of pseudoscience, such as lack of reproducibility, or the inability to create falsifiable experiments. Many accepted scientific concepts including: plate tectonics, and the Big Bang, were criticized by some as being pseudoscientific when first proposed.

It has been argued by several notable commentators that experimental verification is not in itself decisive in scientific method. Thomas Kuhn states that in neither Popper's nor his own theory "can testing play a quite decisive role." Daniel Rothbart said that "the defining feature of science does not seem to be experimental success, for most clear cases of genuine science have been experimentally falsified." The latter proposed that a scientific theory must "account for all the phenomena that its rival background theory explains" and "must clash empirically with its rival by yielding test implications that are inconsistent with the rival theory". A theory is thus scientific or not depending upon its historical situation; if it betters the current explanations of phenomena, it marks scientific progress. "Many domains in ancient Greece, for example, domains that today are called superstition, religion, magic and the occult, were at that time clear cases of legitimate science." This is an explicitly competitive model of scientific work; Rothbart also notes that it is not a completely effective model.

Kuhn postulated that proponents of competing paradigms may resort to political means (such as invective) to garner support from a public which lacks the ability to judge competing scientific theories on their merits. Philosopher of science Larry Laudan has suggested that pseudoscience has no scientific meaning and mostly describes our emotions: "If we would stand up and be counted on the side of reason, we ought to drop terms like ‘pseudo-science’ and ‘unscientific’ from our vocabulary; they are just hollow phrases which do only emotive work for us".

The ubiquity of pseudoscientific thinking

Pseudoscientific thinking is globally widespread. "A survey on public knowledge of science in the United States showed that in 1988 “50% of American adults [rejected] evolution, and 88% [believed] astrology is a science" (Bunge 1989). The National Science Foundation indicated that public belief in pseudoscience rose during the 1990's, peaked near 2001 and has mildly declined since. Nevertheless, pseudoscientific beliefs remain ubiquitous.

Pseudoscientific thinking has been explained in terms of psychology and social psychology. The human proclivity for seeking confirmation rather than refutation (confirmation bias) (Devilly 2005:439), the tendency to hold comforting beliefs, and the tendency to overgeneralize have been proposed as reasons for the common adherence to pseudoscientific thinking. Also, similar to Thagard’s notions of pseudoscience, humans are prone to associations based on resemblances only, and often prone to misattribution in cause-effect thinking. (Beyerstein 1991).

It applies in many fields, for example Pseudomathematics is a term used for mathematics-like activity undertaken either by non-mathematicians or mathematicians themselves which does not conform to the rigorous standards usually applied to mathematical theories.

Pseudoscience in psychotherapy and popular psychology

Neurologists and clinical psychologists such as Drenth (2003:38) , Lilienfeld (2004:20) and Beyerstein (1991:34) are concerned about the increasing amount of what they consider pseudoscience promoted in psychotherapy and popular psychology, and are also concerned about what they see as pseudoscientific therapies such as Neuro-linguistic programming, Rebirthing, Reparenting, and Primal Scream Therapy being adopted by government and professional bodies and by the public. They state that scientifically unsupported therapies may harm vulnerable members of the public, undermine legitimate therapies, and tend to spread misconceptions about the nature of the mind and brain to society at large. Some psychiatrists and mainstream psychologists also perceive psuodoscientific ideas in more popularly accepted branches of psychotherapy, such as co-counselling, Gestalt Therapy, Re-evaluation Counseling and even in the work of Twelve-step program bodies such as Alcoholics Anonymous. There often seems to be an overlap between psychological movements or theories denounced as "pseudoscientific" and those labelled "cults", for example in the case of Dianetics and Scientology.

A typical pseudoscientific concept used in some fringe psychotherapies is orgone energy. "There is an increasing degree of overlapping and blending of orgone therapy with New Age and other therapies that manipulate the patient’s biofields, such as Therapeutic Touch and Reiki. 'Biofield' is a pseudoscientific term often used synonymously with orgone energy. Klee states that "there is even an organization of psychiatrists which promotes the theories and methods of orgone therapy.

Several publications are available that aim to identify and educate practitioners on the subject of pseudoscience. The publication Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine (SRAM) states its purpose is to apply the best tools of science and reason to determine whether hypotheses are valid and treatments are effective. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice (SRMHP) , a new mental health journal interested in the recent growth of therapies that have not been adequately tested, states its purpose "to facilitate improved research and thinking about critical questions on the fringes of present scientific knowledge concerning mental health."

Scientific theories once criticized as pseudoscience

A number of presently accepted scientific theories were once rejected by mainstream scientists and mathematicians of their time as being pseudoscientific, irrational or obviously false. None of these fields are generally considered as pseudoscientific any more. These include:

• Big Bang theory 
• Black holes
• Continental drift 
• Cosmology 
• Electromagnetic fields 
• Meteors

At the time these theories were not accepted, each was backed up by varying levels of evidence, or none at all. Fields can also reject their pseudoscientific notions in favour of the more limited range of scientifically supported element/s of their field. For example, Atwood (2004) suggested that "osteopathy has, for the most part, repudiated its pseudoscientific beginnings and joined the world of rational healthcare.".

See also

• Bad science
• Cargo cult science
• The Demon-Haunted World
• Junk science
• Pathological science
• Pathological skepticism (or Pseudoskepticism)
• Quackery
• Sokal Affair

People

• Michael Behe : advocate of Intelligent Design.
• James Randi : leading debunker of paranormal and psuedoscientific exponents and practitioners.
• Erich von Däniken : controversial Swiss author who is best known for his views that aliens visited the Earth in ancient times.
• Kent Hovind : American evangelist and prominent "Young Earth" creationist.
• L. Ron Hubbard : Founder of Dianetics and the Church of Scientology
• John Hutchison : advocate of the "Hutchison effect" purporting to create energy from the vacuum.
• Michael Shermer : science writer, founder of The Skeptics Society, and editor of its magazine Skeptic.
• Marcello Truzzi : professor of sociology at Eastern Michigan University and director for the Center for Scientific Anomalies Research.
• Ernest Muldashev : Russian ufologist.

Lists

• Crank (article which contains a list of theories)
• List of pseudoscientific theories
• List of misconceptions

References

• Atwood K,C. Naturopathy, Pseudoscience, and Medicine: Myths and Fallacies vs Truth. Medscape General Medicine. 2004;6(1):e53 www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1140750, retrieved 4 Sept. 2006
• Beyerstein,D. (1996) A Skeptical Look at Alternative Healthcare. The Rational Enquirer. Vol 12, No. 2, Nov, 02 [11]
• Beyerstein,D, (1997) Why Bogus Therapies Often Seem to Work. Rational Inquirer: September/October 1997 [12]
• Bunge, M. (1983) Demarcating science from pseudoscience," Fundamenta Scientiae 3: 369-388.
• Bunge,M. (1989)“The Popular perception of science”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, series V, Vol. IV, 269-280
• Hines, Terence, Pseudoscience and the Paranormal: A Critical Examination of the Evidence, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1988. ISBN 0-87975-419-2.
• Beyerstein, B.L. (1990) Brainscams: Neuromythologies of the New Age. Int'l. J. of Mental Health, 19(3):27-36.[13]
• Carroll, Robert Todd, (2003). The Skeptic's Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-27242-6
• Kaptchuk, Ted J and Eisenberg, David M. The Persuasive Appeal of Alternative Medicine. Annals of Internal Medicine 12:129, 1061-1065. 15 December 1998 www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/129/12/1061, retrieved 4 Sept. 2006
• Klee G.D. (2005) THE RESURRECTION OF WILHELM REICH AND ORGONE THERAPY The scientific review of mental health practice. Spring ~ Summer 2005 Volume 4 Number 1
• Lilienfeld S.O. (2004) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. Guilford Press (2004) ISBN 1-59385-070-0
• Bernard Ortiz de Montellano (1992). "Magic Melanin: Spreading Scientific Illiteracy Among the Minorities (part 2)". Skeptical Inquirer 16 (2): 162-66. Retrieved on June 25, 2006. ^[e]

• Shermer, Michael, Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time, Owl Books, New York, NY, 2002, ISBN 0-8050-7089-3
• Victor J. Stenger (1995). The Unconscious Quantum: Metaphysics in Modern Physics and Cosmology. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-022-3. 
• Williams, William F. (editor) (2000). Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy, Facts on File, ISBN 0-8160-3351-X
• Wilson, Fred, The Logic and Methodology of Science and Pseudoscience, Canadian Scholars Press, 2000. ISBN 1-55130-175-X
• Plate Tectonics: The Rocky History of an Idea by Anne Weil, University of California, Berekley, Museum of Palenotology, retrieved Aug 2, 2006
• Big Bang Cosmology by Gary Hinshaw, WMAP, NASA, retrieved Aug 2, 2006
• A History of Quantum Mechanics by J J O'Connor and E F Robertson, JOC/EFR May 1996, retrieved Aug 2, 2006

Literature

• Mario Bunge, Demarcating Science from Pseudoscience. Fundamenta Scientiae, 1982, Vo. 3, No. 3/4, pg. 369-88
• Georges Charpak, Debunked!, Johns Hopkins University Press 2004, ISBN 0801878675
• Athony A. Derksen, The Seven Sins Of Pseudo-Science, in: Journal for General Philosophy of Science Vol. 24, 1993, No. 1, pg. 17-42.
• Athony A. Derksen, The Seven Strategies of the Sophisticated Pseudo-Scientist: a look into Freud's rhetorical tool box, in: Journal for General Philosophy of Science Vol 32, 2001, No. 2, pg. 329-350
• Martin Gardner: Fads and Fallacies – In the Name of Science. Dover, New York 1957
• Martin Gardner: Science – Good, Bad and Bogus. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1983
• Sven Ove Hansson, Defining Pseudoscience, in: Philosophia naturalis 33, 1996, No. 1, pg. 169-176.
• Terence Hines: Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Amherst 2003
• Larry Laudan: The Demise of the Demarcation Problem. In: Michael Ruse (ed.): But is it Science? The philosophical question in the creation/evolution controversy. Prometheus Books 1988.
• Scott O. Lilienfeld et al. (Eds.): Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. New York / London 2003
• Richard J. McNally: Is the pseudoscience concept useful for clinical psychology?. The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice 2:2 (Fall/Winter 2003)
• Keith Parsons: Science, Confirmation, and the Theistic Hypothesis (1986)
• John Allen Paulos: Innumeracy – Mathematical Illiteracy and its Consequences. New York 2001
• Karl Popper, Science, Pseudo-Science, and Falsifiability, excerpt from Conjectures and Refutations, 1978, S. 33-39 (first published 1962)
• Michael Shermer: Why People Believe Weird Things – Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time. New York 2002
• Carol Tavris: Psychobabble and Biobunk – Using Psychology to Think Critically About Issues in the News. 2nd Edition. Upper Saddle River 2001

External links

• The Anatomy of Pseudoscience Steven Novella
• Debating pseudoscientists - Philip Plait
• Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience - Barry L. Beyerstein
• Pseudoscience - Robert Todd Carroll, PhD
• Pseudoscience. What is it? How can I recognize it? - Stephen Lower
• The Seven Warning Signs of Bogus Science - Robert L. Park
• Science Needs to Combat Pseudoscience - A statement by 32 Russian scientists and philosophers
• Science, Pseudoscience, and Irrationalism - Steven Dutch
• Why Is Pseudoscience Dangerous? - Edward Kruglyakov
• Why SETI is science and UFOlogy is not - Mark Moldwin