Dwight D. Eisenhower
General of the Army Dwight David Eisenhower ("Ike") (1890-1969) was an American soldier who fought in World War I, was a top commander in World War II, and served as the 34th president of the United States (1953-1961). During the war he first commanded Allied (British and American) troops in North Africa in 1942 and Italy 1943, then became the Supreme Commander of the forces that invaded Normandy on D-Day, June 6, 1944 anddefeated the Germans in the West.
As the great American hero of the war, both parties wanted him as a presidential candidate. He kept out of politics until 1952, when he defeated Robert A. Taft for the Republican nomination and was elected by a landslide. As president he continued what was left of the New Deal and expanded Social Security, kept the containment policy in the Cold War, ended the Korean War, sponsored the Interstate Highway System, signed the first civil rights bill in 82 years, and promoted moderate domestic policies known as "dynamic conservatism". As he left office Eisenhower issued a famous warning about the dangers of the military-industrial complex.
Early career
Interwar years
Holland (2001) argues that Eisenhower was the best read and trained officer of his age in the interwar Army and possesses a "terrific intellect." Far from being an unknown, his talents and work ethic attracted the attention of some of the Army's most important senior officers, who mentored Eisenhower and boostedd his career. Indeed, he benefited from such attention more than any other officer of the era. A specialist on logistics and supply, he largely wrote the Army's "Industrial Mobilization Plan of 1930." (It was not, however, used when the war came.)
World War II
1940-42
1942-45
Postwar
Appointed in 1951 as Supreme Allied Commander in Europe (SACEUR) in charge of the NATO military, Eisenhower was convinced that America's own security depended on its commitment to NATO. He was, therefore outraged by Taft's isolationism. In February 1951, Eisenhower met privately with Taft, seeking the Senator's assurance that he would support America's commitment to European collective security. Taft refused, and the die was cast for Eisenhower's entry into the 1952 presidential context to stop Taft and guarantee and internationalist commitment.
1952 Presidential campaign
Part of Eisenhower's campaign was the catchy slogan--"I Like Ike"--an animated TV commercial was produced by Roy Disney and the Citizens for Eisenhower-Nixon. [1], as well as on pin-on buttons.
Presidency
Journalists in the 1950s depicted Eisenhower as a laid-back "chairman of the board" who let his subordinates run the government. The opening of Eisenhower's papers surprised scholars, who discovered that behind the scenes Eisenhower was a hands-on leader who watched details and made all the major decisions.[2]
Truman, bitterly unhappy with his own White House staff, joked that when Ike became president he would push a button and nothing will happen. Truman was wrong, for Eisenhower was the best organizer in the Army, and he redesigned the White House staff and the executive departments so he had clear control at all times, and brought on board talented senior staff to oversee the process.[3]
Foreign policy and the military
Eisenhower worried that excessive defense spending would weaken the economy in the long-run, and thus be counterproductive. His "New Look" strategy economized by cutting back on Army divisions (much to the chagrin of the soldiers), and emphasizing instead nuclear weapons, which gave "more bang for the buck."
Eisenhower rejected the policy of limited war and use of tactical nuclear weapons to the strategic menu of ways to deal with the Communist threat, and instead adopted a new strategy of "massive resistance" whereby a small war with the Soviet Union would immediately turn into a major nuclear war. He knew the U.S. had substantial nuclear superiority. The effect was to deter both sides from any action that might escalate tensions into a small war. Eisenhower thus avoided World War III. Eisenhower rejected criticism from his Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his Army chief of staff Maxwell Taylor. They both wanted more flexibility, but Eisenhower got his way. [4]
He strengthned the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff at the expense of the traditional service chiefs.[5]
At the time there were no intercontinental missiles, and the American air defense system was considered strong enough to fend ogff any Soviet air attack. American progress in rocketry was upstaged by the Soviets in 1957, as they launched Sputnik, the first earth satellite, and kept their lead in space for several years. Everyone realized that gave the Soviets a lead in long-range missiles as well.
Second term
Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in 1956,[6] but made a full recovery and was reelected easily in another landslide over the same Democrat, Adlai Stevenson.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; refs with no name must have content
Bibliography
To 1945
- Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect; Eisenhower: The President; one volume edition is Eisenhower: Soldier and President (2003), standard scholarly biography
- D’Este, Carlo. Eisenhower, A Soldier’s Life (2002), 848 pages, strongest on WW2
- Eisenhower, David. Eisenhower At War 1943/45 solid biography by his grandson
- Holland, Matthew F. Eisenhower between the Wars: The Making of a General and a Statesman. (2001). 248 pp.
- Krieg, Joann P. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman (1987) online edition
- Murray, G. E. Patrick. Eisenhower versus Montgomery: The Continuing Debate (19960 online edition
- Pogue; Forrest C. The Supreme Command (1996) online edition
- Sixsmith, E. K.G. Eisenhower, His Life and Campaigns (1973) online edition
- Wukovits, John. Eisenhower: A Biography. (Great Generals Series.) (2006). 204 pp.
Post 1945
- Albertson, Dean. Eisenhower as President (1963) online edition
- Alexander, Charles C. Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952-1961 (1975) online edition
- Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect; Eisenhower: The President; one volume edition is Eisenhower: Soldier and President (2003), standard scholarly biography
- Beschloss, Michael R. MAYDAY: Eisenhower, Kruschev, and the U-2 Affair
- Bischof, Gunter (Ed.) and Stephen E. Ambrose, (Eds.) Eisenhower: A Centenary Assessment
- Bose, Meena. Shaping and Signaling Presidential Policy: The National Security Decision Making of Eisenhower and Kennedy. (1998). 197 pp.
- Bowie, Robert R. and Immerman, Richard H. Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy (1998) online edition
- Boyle, Peter G. Eisenhower. (Profiles in Power Series.) (2005). 200 pp.
- Clarfield, Gerard. Security with Solvency: Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Shaping of the American Military Establishment (1999) online edition
- Damms, Richard V. The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953-1961 (2002) 161 pp.
- Divine, Robert A. Eisenhower and the Cold War (1981) online edition
- Galambos, Louis (Ed.), Eisenhower’s Legacy: The General, The President, The Public Servant
- Geelhoed, E. Bruce and Edmonds, Anthony O. Eisenhower, Macmillan, and Allied Unity, 1957-1961. (2003). 196 pp.
- Greenstein, Fred I. The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (1991), highly influential study by political scientist
- Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997 online edition
- Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962) online edition
- Jackson, Michael Gordon. "Beyond Brinkmanship: Eisenhower, Nuclear War Fighting, and Korea, 1953-1968," Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 35, 2005 online edition
- Kengor, Paul. "Comparing Presidents Reagan and Eisenhower" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 28, 1998 online edition
- Krieg, Joann P. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman (1987) online edition
- Medhurst, Martin J. "Text and Context in the 1952 Presidential Campaign: Eisenhower's 'I Shall Go to Korea' Speech," Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 30, 2000 online edition
- Olson, James S. Historical Dictionary of the 1950s (2000) online edition
- Pach, Chester J. and Elmo Richardson. Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower (1991), standard historical survey
- Parmet, Herbert S. Eisenhower and the American Crusades (1972) online edition, scholarly biography
- Rosenberg, Victor. Soviet-American Relations, 1953-1960: Diplomacy and Cultural Exchange during the Eisenhower Presidency. (2005). 324 pp.
- Showalter, Dennis E., ed. Forging the Shield: Eisenhower and National Security for the 21st Century. (2005). 235 pp.
- Tudda, Chris. The Truth Is Our Weapon: The Rhetorical Diplomacy of Dwight D. Eisenhower and John Foster Dulles. (2006). 224 pp.
- Wagner, Steven. Eisenhower Republicanism: Pursuing the Middle Way. (2006). 179 pp. isbn 978-0-87580-362-3.)
Primary Sources
- Eisenhower, Dwight D. Crusade In Europe (1948), war memoir
- Eisenhower, Dwight D. White House Years- Mandate for Change, 1953-1956 (1963) online edition
- Eisenhower, Dwight D. White House Years- Waging Peace, 1956-1961
- Eisenhower Papers 21 volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940-61.
- Eisenhower, Dwight D. Eisenhower: The Prewar Diaries and Selected Papers, 1905-1941. ed. by Daniel D. Holt and James W. Leyerzapf, (1998). 576 pp.
- Farewell speech, 1960
- The Churchill-Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953-1955 edited by Peter G. Boyle, (1990) online edition
Memoirs by aides
- Benson, Ezra Taft. Cross Fire: The Eight Years With Eisenhower (1962) by the Secretary of Agriculture online edition
- Butcher, Harry C. My Three Years With Eisenhower by wartime aide
Notes
- ↑ Internet archive, Eisenhower Campaign Spots (1952). Retrieved on 2007-09-11.
- ↑ Fred I. Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (1991)
- ↑ Alfred D. Sander, Eisenhower's Executive Office (1999)
- ↑ Taylor retired and counterattacked, writing that Eisenhower's policy "offers no alternative other than reciprocal suicide or retreat in the face of the superiority of Soviet forces." [Taylor, The Uncertain Trumpet (1959) p. 137] President John F Kennedy greatly admired Taylor’s ideas and brought him back as chairman of the Joint Chiefs in 1962.
- ↑ Gerard Clarfield, Security and Solvency: Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Shaping of the American Military Establishment. (1999)
- ↑ In response Ike learned to control his hot temper, maintain his proper weight; stop smoking cigarettes; measure his blood pressure and blood cholesterol levels; manage anxiety, depression, and fear; and handle worry and stress. Eisenhower learned to recognize skipped heart beats, too rapid pulses, and the need for the occasional use of nitroglycerine. Clarence G. Lasby, Eisenhower's Heart Attack: How Ike Beat Heart Disease and Held on to the Presidency. (1997)