User:Thomas Mandel/General Systems Theory
The book General System Theory was written by Ludwitg von Bertanffy and first published in 1968. [1]It is not, however, a book about a theory in the conventional sense. The English word "Theory" is a translation of the original German "Theorie" which has a meaning closer to the English word "teaching."[2] We will be using the phrase General System Theory (GST) throughout this article because that is how it was translated and used in the English languages.
GST is primarily about general principles of systems which can be applied to all systems regardless of their content. When used in this way, system has a general "philosophical" definition which is defined by Bertalanffy as "elements in standing relationship." (ref) Systems such as a system of arrangement or organization, or as a procedure or method, or grouping for classification or analysis, or even "my system" are not the kinds of systems Bertalanffy talked about.
It is necessary to study not only parts and processes in isolation, but also to solve the decisive problems found in the organization and order unifying them, resulting from dynamic interacton of parts, and making the behavoir of parts different when studied in isolation or within the whole.
He often referred to organismic systems, essentially those systems which integrate the elements resulting in a new and different whole. This aspect is crucial to understanding integrative systems because the new whole will generally have properties that are not found in the constituent parts. One example is liquid water, made of gases. We do not experience those gases, instead we experience their relationship,e.g., the wetness.
Introduction
Systems Everywhere
On the History of Systems Theory
The meaning of General System Theory===
"We may state as characteristic of modern science that the scheme of isolable units acting in one-way causality has proved to be insufficient. Hence the appearance, in all fields of science, of notions like wholeness, holistic, oraganismic, gestalt, etc., which all signify that, in the last resort, we must think in terms of systems of elements in mutual interaction." [3]
To think in terms of elements in mutual interaction requires a different way of thinking. We usually think in terms of objects or things, on the other hand, to think in terms of interactions would be like thinking in terms of what things are doing. It is this different kind of thinking that enables identical principles which can apply to different situations, or to different things. A good example is our own DNA which codes for genes. There are 21 different amino acids each one produced by a different "codon". But the "codon" is made of only four different bases It is not the bases themselves that code for the end product, but the various kinds of relationships among them. From four different "elements" as many as 30.000 different proteins can be translated in a typical organism.
Some System concepts
Complexity
Perhaps the primary essential feature of a system is that is is a complex of parts/wholes. It is this inherent complexity that differentiates a system from conventional reductionism which investigates a single part in isolation
Elements
The elements of a system can take any form. The essential point is that a single element by itself does not make a system. If a system is reduced to its simplest form, at least four (4) different conceptual elements will be isolated.
Relationships
Relatinships here refer to the mutual interaction between the elements or parts. This may be static (the relationship of these letters) or dynamic (The relationship of the meanings of these words)
Emergence
A feature of all integrative systems which is responsible for the formation of a unique whole which has properties not necessarily found in the parts alone.
Whole
When elements are combined in a relationship, they can be considered as a single whole
Environment
A system can be closed or open. When a system interacts with the environment it is considered an open system
Hierarchy
A system involves several perspectives which when taken together form a hierarchy
Holon
A holon is a part of a particular system and also can be a whole of a different system.
Feedback
In a dynamic system information is fed back to the initial state for example a theromostat. Feedback is an essential feature of cybernetics, a particular kind f system.
Interaction
Interaction is similar to a relationship but refers to a mutual action
Equifinality
When all states lead to a common final state
Autopoeisis
Self reproduction
Boundary
Boundaries are set by the evaluator according to the desires and needs of the evaluator
Open system
A system that interacts with something outside of it or derives its energy from outside of it.
Complex system
A system by definition is a complex. When systems interact with systems are called complex systems.
Non-linear systems
A complex system having an output which does not change in a linear way
System gestalt
This graphic is a gestalt figure. It can be perceived in one of two ways. It can be perceived as a collecton of parts with the emphasis on the black, or it can be perceived as if those parts form one whole with the emphasis on the white. It will be necessary to look at the figure for a period of time before they will change from one to the other. This figure illustrates how an integrative systems combines parts into an emergent whole,
Advances in General Systems Theory
The model of the Open system
Some aspects of System Theory in Biology
The system concept in the Science of Man
General System Theory in Psychology and Psychiatry
Family therapy...
The Relativity of Categories
Language is an important factor in the formation of any theory. Language creates boundaries and boundaries determine what is and what isn't considered. Bertalanffy compares the language of the Hopi to that of the showing that the Hopi do not base their language on time. This influence of language has been investigated in part by B. Whorf explained by Bertalanffy -
"The hypothesis offered by Whorf is: "...that the commonly held belief that the cognitive processes of all human beings possess a common logical structure which operates prior to and independantly of communication through language, is erroneous. It is Whorf's view that the linguistic patterns themselves determine what the individual perceives in this world and how he thinks about it. Since these patterns vary widely, the modes of thinking and perceiving in groups utilizing different linguistic systems will result in different world views, (Fearing, 1954)" (p222)
"It may be mentioned in passing, that the relations between language ansd world view is not unidirectional but reciprocal, a fact which perhaps was not made sufficiently clear by Whorf. The structure of language seems to determine which traits of reality are abstracted and hence what forms the categories of thinking take on. On the other hand, the world outlook determines and forms the language." (p 238)
References
von Bertalanffy, Ludwig. (1968) General System Theory, George Braziller, New York. ISBN 0-8076-0453-4