Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was born in Salonica (now in Greece) in 1881.Education: In 1893 Mustafa Kemal Ataturk decided to join in a military school called Askeri Rustiye. In 1896 he graduated from Selanik Askeri Rustiyesi (Selanik Military School) and continued at another military school Manastir Askeri Idadisi. Mustafa Kemal graduated on 13th March in 1899 and continued his education at the Istanbul Harp School a military school in Istanbul. Upon graduation he was commissioned as a lieutenant, and was promoted to staff captain in 1905. Because of his outspokenness regarding the administration of the State he was banished to Damascus Syria. Early military and political career: While in Damascus he was commanding officer of the fifth army and in line of duty traveled throughout Syria witnessing many administrative abuses. During October of 1906 Mustafa Kemal founded the Vatan ve Hurriyet Cemiyeti a political organization. With his friends he extended the borders of this organization to Beirut and Jerusalem. Meanwhile he became an Adjutant Major in 1907 and appointed as Chief of Staff in Damascus. After being reassigned as commander of the third army on 13th October 1907 he was posted to Salonica. Meanwhile the organization called Vatan ve Hurriyet was actively working with members of another organization called Ittihat ve Terakki (Party of Union and Progress) with Mustafa Kemal as a member. In 1876 the Party of Union and Progress forced the emperor Sultan Abdulhamit to apply the Constitution and reopen the parliament called Meclis-i Mebusan. These brought about the declaration of Mesrutiyet II or the “Second Constitutional Government.” The Second Constitutional Government On 23 July 1908 the Second Constitutional Government was declared while Mustafa Kemal served as Adjutant Major in Salonica and was active in the Party of Union and Progress. After the “31st March Rebellion” Mustafa Kemal was reassigned to the General Staff in Istanbul on 19th April 1909. Emperor Abdulhamit was dethroned and Sultan Resit replaced him. After Italy attacked Tripoli on 5th October 1911 Mustafa Kemal was sent there to its defence on 15th October 1911. In October 1912 the War of the Balkans broke out. The First World War: World War I broke out after Germany’s attack on Russia (1 August 1914). On 29 October 1914 the Ottoman Empire joined Germany in the war. Gallipoli Battle:
On 18th March 1915 the English Fleet attempted to sail through the Dardanelle Straits but Ottoman on shore artillery succeeded in preventing the passage. Because of this failure the British tried to conquer the Gallipoli Peninsula. The Ottoman's 5th Army including Mustafa Kemal’s division stood in defense of the peninsula. The British attacked Seddulbahir and Ariburnu on 25th April 1915. Ataturk’s 19th Division stopped the invasion. Although on 25th April 1915 the British were forced to withdraw, they continued attacking on the 26 and 27 April 1915 as well. However every assault was rebuffed.
With signing the Mondros Ceasefire Agreement on 30 October 1918 the First World War came to an end. However the price the Ottomans were willing to pay was significant. Italians were to share Antalya, Iskenderun, Adana, Mersin, Antep, Maras, and Urfa the southern part of Turkey. Kars was to be governed by the English. The Greeks received Izmir on 15th May 1919. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk moved to establish a new and independent Turkish State to be ruled by Turks resulting in the War of Independence. Emerging as a military hero at the Dardanelles in 1915, Ataturk became the charismatic leader of the Turkish national liberation struggle in 1919. Following a series of impressive victories against all odds, he led his nation to full independence. He put an end to the antiquated Ottoman dynasty which lasted more than six centuries and spanned three continents and created the Republic of Turkey in 1923, establishing a new Republican government.
The Republican years
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk introduced a broad range of swift and sweeping political, social, legal, educational, medical, economic, and cultural reforms that were at the time virtually unparalleled. It abolished the Caliphate, Islamic educational institutions and religious courts, introduced new dress codes as well as a civil law and replaced the Arabic script with the Latin alphabet.
Establishment of the Turkish Republic on October 29, 1923 consolidated Ataturk’s military power and political authority both internationally and domestically. However Ataturk hesitated to use heavily overt force because of opposition in the military ranks, which were very conservative and religious and might not support his other radical reforms. Turkish society was not homogeneous. This made it difficult to restructure the Ottoman legacy and heritage which was based on religion. On March 3, 1924 Ataturk made the inevitable move by abolishing the caliphate. The new constitution was enacted by the parliament led by Ataturk without any mention of religious authority . This first step gave rise to many western oriented reforms which changed peoples’ daily lives in every way.
The new secular constitution aimed to create a modern nation and unity among Turkish citizens. The dress code passed in 1925 objected to create a modern look and encourage this unity and to abolish the previous dress code introduced as Ottoman Empire’s dress code in 1826 by the Mahmud II, allowed the people to wear the fez as a religious symbol . The Civil Code banned wearing of fezes for men and the weil for women. Just after the code was enacted a huge opposition surfaced against the CHP (Republican People’s Party). Ataturk traveled in different cities in Anatolia to convince people that the new civil code was inevitable for the Modern Turkish State as a part of secularization by saying in Kastamonu: “I see someone on the back wearing a fez which is a totally opposite from a modern look. The civilized world will laugh at us, if we continue to wear these kinds of uncivilized clothes.”
More significantly however Atatürk initiated a number of very significant educational reforms. He died on 10 November 1938 at Dolmabahçe Palace. Temporarily interned at the Ethnograpy Museum in Ankara on 21 November 1938, and with a grand ceremony he was taken to a permanent place of rest on 10 November 1953 when his mausoleum was completed.
Robinson D.R, The First Turkish Republic, Harvard University Press, 1965 pp. 80-82 Robinson D.R, The First Turkish Republic, Harvard University Press, 1965 pp. 80-82 Ibid Gozler, Fethi, Turk Inkilabi (Turkish Reformation), Inkilap Publishing, 1935 Ataturk ve Cagdaslasma (Ataturk and Modernization) edited by Prof Dr. Mehmet Saray, Huseyin Tosun, pp 135-136 See http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/German_Diaspora_in_Turkey, http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Ernst_Reuter
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Andreas_Bertholan_Schwarz
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Alfred_Kantorowicz
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Ernst_Eduard_Hirsch
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Fritz_Neumark
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/FRIEDRICH_DESSAUER
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Licco_Amar
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Kurt_Kosswig
among others.
This article is based on http://www.ataturk.com/content/view/12/26/ and http://www.ataturk.com/content/view/24/43/ among other sources.
For additional reading on Ataturk’s societal reforms and Turkey’s modernization see Arnold Reisman, TURKEY'S MODERNIZATION: Refugees from Nazism and Ataturk's Vision. (2006) http://www.newacademia.com/turkeys_modernization/