English phonemes
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The sounds and their spellings
A phoneme is a distinct unit of sound; spellings are ways of writing these sounds. English phonemes have different spellings depending on a word's provenance and history. This is a list of the phonemes, with their International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols, and all their spellings (graphemes).
In all cases, a number of example words are shown; where those examples are few, it is because the spelling is rare and they are the only ones.
The pronunciations are those of the language's two main varieties: American English (AmE), where r is pronounced before a consonant, and British English (BrE), where it is not.
The áccents on bold example words indicate stressed vowels and their pronunciation. An equals sign shows homophones, with words in italics suggesting meaning: sêen saw = scêne scenic, drama, crime. The bullet (●) represents any consonant. An asterisk before a word indicates that it is a respelling to show pronunciation, and thus wrongly (*róngly) spelt.
Vowels and diphthongs
IPA /i:/ ê, êa, êe, ê●e, êi, ìê, aê, oê, ì, ỳ, êỳ, êo
ê: bê, mê, récipê, catástrophê, Penélopê, Lêthê, hypërbolê, mêthane, sêrum, dêvious, mêdia, rêtail, dêmon, Êly, mêtre BrE distance, poem
êa: sêa water, lêave, hêat, sêat, bêat hit, nêat, êasy, mêal, drêam, têam, hêath
êe: sêe vision frêe, trêe, fêel, whêel, grêed, fêed, spêed, bêet sugar êel, rêel
ê●e: Pêter, scêne, êven, fêver, mêter all AmE, BrE machine only complête, compête
êi: after c: percêive, recêive, recêipt (-êit), concêit, concêive, cêiling; after w: wêird, wêir (but: wìêld); sêize, Shêila, Nêil, Nêill, O´Nêill
ìê: before v: belìêve, relìêve, grìêve
aê: stressed, from Greek (BrE; AmE has ê alone): Aêschylus, encyclopaêdia; unstressed in Latin plurals: nébulae, nôvae, fŏrmulae
oê: BrE (AmE has ê alone) from Greek: Oêdipus, amoêba, foêtus, oêstrogen, oenólogy, subpoêna
ì: from French: machìne, Christìne, magazìne, nìche, elìte
ỳ: normally unstressed: fúnny, sílly, crâzy, lâzy, êasy, wítty, dextérity, Yvétte, Yvónne; stressed: Lỳón, Lỳse, Mervỳna
êỳ: unstressed: nôsey, pôsey, láckey, jóckey, balôney, álley, Hàrvey
êo: pêople
IPA /ɪ/ í, ý, u, o, e, ’, eí, íe
í: sít, fít, sítter, fítter, fítting, bít, líd, híd, bíd, stíll, bíll = Bíll, Wílliam, fíll, línt, tínt, wríst, pín, tílt, míddle, ínch, fíg, bíg
ý: týpical, sýnthesis, sýnagogue, sýmptom, cýst, mýstic, mýth, trýst, Dýlan
u: business, busy
o: women
e: unstressed: Jôneses, Bíggses, Báxes, táxes, cópses, fléxes
’: unstressed: Jônes’s, Bíggs’s, Báx’s
eí: unstressed -feít: còunterfeít, fŏrfeít, sürfeít
íe: unstressed: pàrtíes, fámilíes, lórríes, cárríes, cárríed, márríed, pólicíes
IPA /e/ é, éa, ai, u
é: béd, Néd, wét, sét, pén, hén, méss, dréss, pép, séven, eléven, Dévon, Édward, Téd, bréd breed, cléver, éver, évery, néver, tén, ténth, dén, crést
éa: déath, bréath, bréast, déad, héad, bréad food, héaven, thréat, thréaten
ai: said (*séd)
u: bury ground (= bérry fruit)
IPA /æ/ á
fát, cát, sát, mát, Ánthony, ánt, bág, dágger, fán, pán, áttic, spásm, cáttle, brásh, ásh
redundant i in: pláit
redundant e in Gáelic Scotland = Gállic France (cf. Gâelic Ireland)
This sound is never final.
American English uses a long version of á instead of BrE à, except in fàther, Coloràdo, Chicàgo, pajàmas (BrE pyjàmas) càlm, quàlm, bàlm, àlms or when an r follows.
IPA /ɑ/ à, àr, àl, ó
Words with à in both British and American English are:
à: fàther, Chicàgo, Coloràdo, AmE pajàmas BrE pyjàmas, Tuvàlu and Baràck Obàma, where, however, some BrE speakers instead say bárrack army
al: (silent l) càlm, bàlm, quàlm, àlms
and whenever an r (always heard in AmE, silent final or before a consonant in BrE) follows:
àr: màr= Màrr, bàr, càr, vàrnish, pàrk, màrvel, stàr, scàr, bizàrre, hàrm, àrm, fàr, càrt, fàrmer, scàr, pàrt, màrk, stàrch, pàrch, màrch, hàrd, gàrden, làrge
The following are pronounced à in southern BrE (most with á in northern BrE), a long á in AmE:
ā: Irān, Irāq, cān’t, grānt, āfter, crāft, lāugh, grāph, āunt, dānce
before s: pāst, fāst, cāstle, māster, clāss, ghāstly, nāsty, grāss, lāst, plāster, cāst, pāss, tāsk, blāst, āsk
before th: rāther, pāth, bāth, rāther, lāther
āl: with silent l: hālf, cālf, hālve
ó in AmE is pronounced à, as in the next section:
IPA /ɒ/ ó
BrE only: AmE replaces this sound with à.
(Thus AmE pronounces the first words of Lós Ángeles and Làs Vègas the same: this is confusing for BrE speakers, who are as likely to say Lás Vègas, like láss girl, or, perhaps more commonly, "Lós Vègas", like the BrE lóss lose.)
ó: hót, gót, spót, bóther, dóg, dóll, nót, stóp, lóst, óften, slób, slóppy, cróss, nód, ódd, shóne, óff, tóffee
ough as -óff: cóugh, tróugh
a after ẁ: ẁant, ẁas, ẁash, ẁasp, ẁarren, ẁander, ẁarrant
after ẁh: ẁhat
after sẁ: sẁap, sẁan, sẁab, sẁamp
after qù: qùantity, qùantum, qùad, qùash, sqùash, sqùad, sqùabble
IPA /ɔ/ å, åw, åu, åugh, ŏr, ŏre, ŏrps, ŏor, ŏa, ŏur, ŏugh
The r is silent in BrE before a consonant, but sounded in AmE.
å: wåter, ålso
before lk: chålk, tålk, stålk, wålk, bålk
before ll: åll, fåll, tåll, båll
before lt: ålter, fålter, Wålter, hålt, althôugh
åw: såw, see, tool, åwful, bråwl, cråwl, fåwn colour, deer, grovel, bråwn, clåw, påw animal, swårm, wårm, wårn, wård, jåw, Shåw, måw
åu: cåuse, påuse, fåult, exhåust, fåun god
åugh: cåught, tåught, åught, nåughty, Wåugh
ŏr: ŏr either, fŏr, nŏr, cóndŏr, fŏrt, pŏrt, sŏrt, shŏrt, whŏrl
ŏre: ŏre metal, cŏre centre, gŏre, pŏre skin, scŏre, sŏre pain, bŏre tedium, hole, ignŏre, deplŏre, restŏre, whŏre (h-), mŏre extra
ŏrps: cŏrps army
ŏor: dŏor, pŏor broke, unfortunate, flŏor, bŏor rude, mŏor land
ŏa: brŏad, abrŏad
ŏar: ŏar boat, bŏar animal, sŏar fly
ŏur: fŏur, pŏur, mŏurn, tŏurnament
ŏugh: fŏught, bŏught, sŏught, brŏught
IPA /ʊ/ ù, oò, oùl, où, o
BrE only: AmE replaces this sound with a stressed schwa, /ə/.
ù: pùt, fùll, pùsh, bùsh, bùll, pùll, cùshion
oò: goòd, woòd, soòt, foòt, woòl
oùl: shoùld, coùld, woùld
où: poùffe
o: woman, wolf
IPA /(j)u:/ û, ûe, û●e, ûi, oû, oûgh, oô, eŵ, ŵ, o
The long û grapheme repesents two phonemes, /uː/ and /juː/, with various distributions on either side of the Atlantic. For a full discussion of this, see the article on the letter U.
û: gnû, Stû, flû ill, gùrû, êmû, pûny, Mûnich, jûry, Trûdi, dûbious, rûling, mûtiny, nûtrient, trûth, Rûth
ûe: flûe chimney, trûe, blûe colour, glûe, cûe drama, billiards = queûe wait (*kyû)
û•e: Jûne, jûte, flûte, tûne, dûpe, Drûse, fûneral
ûi: frûit, jûice, slûice, crûise
oû: groûp, soûp, coûp hit (= coô)
oûgh: throûgh
oô: shoô, soôn, foôd, broôd, foôl, schoôl, toôl, moôn, troôp, loôp, droôp, loôse, choôse, groôvy, loôt, toô also, much, coô bird
eŵ: neŵ, neŵs, vieŵ, cheŵ, revieŵ, Jeŵ, bleŵ blow
ŵ: unstressed in Rŵánda
ŵo: tŵo 2
o: do, who (*hû) shoe, lose, move, prove, to particle
IPA /ʌ/ ú, oú, ò, òo
BrE only: in AmE, it is replaced by a stressed schwa, /ə/, while in demotic speech in northern England, it is replaced by ù, /ʊ/.
ú: nút, cúp, slút, túck, spún, fún, dúst, rúst, búst, sún, múck, súck, dúck, BrE cúrrent
oú: doúble, troúble, soúthern; (-úff:) toúgh, enoúgh, roúgh
ò after w: wònder, wòn win, BrE wòrry
before n: frònt, dòne, nòne, òne 1 (invisible w-: = wòn)
before -ve: lòve, shòve, glòve, dòve
before -ther: òther, anòther, mòther, bròther, smòther (cf. bóther)
òo: before d: flòod, blòod
IPA /ɜ:/ ër, ëar, ïr, ür, ÿr, ör, öur
As with the preceding, this sound does not exist in American English, being replaced by a stressed schwa, always with -r sounded; the r is silent in BrE and the schwa lengthened to /ɜː/.
ër: wëre, përson, vërve, vërdant, sërvant, jërk, fërn, hërd, tërn bird
ëar: hëard, lëarn, yëarn, hëarse, rehëarse, ëarl, pëarl, dëarth
ïr: fïrst, bïrd, dïrt, gïrl, quïrk, ïrk, stïr, whïrr, dïrt, shïrt, skïrt, flïrt, cïrcus, cïrcle, cïrcuit, bïrth, gïrth, fïrm, fïr
ür: bürn, türn round, absürd, chürch, Türk, fürtive, blürt, spürt, hürt, nürse, AmE cürrent (BrE cúrrent), cürtsey
ÿr: mÿrtle, mÿrrh, Bÿrd
ör: only after w: wörk, wörse, wörst, wörm, wörd, AmE wörry
öur: in -jöurn- and cöurt-: jöurney, jöurnal, adjöurn, cöurteous, cöurtesy
IPA /ə/, the schwa sound
An example of schwa (*shwà) is the neutral grunt which begins the word abòut (*əbòut). A shorter version of /ɜ/, never stressed, it can be spelt a, e, o or, less often, u, with or without a following r (which is silent in BrE if not followed by another vowel). It also appears as y in Béryl, Síbyl and síbyllîne - and it can be invisible before r and l.
First syllable: agô, ahéad, abòut, again (-é-), abòve, upón and in names beginning Mac- such as MacNêill - or McNêill (invisible version)
Second syllable: ígnorance, pébble, doùble, Chîna, sêater, víctor, bürsar, quérulous, lêmur, fêmur, vísion, nâtion (-sion and -tion always have schwa), Cânaan (double a), dógs’re (informal use of apostrophe)
Third syllable: ígnorance, decîder, Éxeter, Pámela, precürsor, exémplar, ridículous, invâsion
Fourth syllable: América, Tanzanìa, exécutor, cálculator, álligator, unbelìêver, abnegâtion
Fifth syllable: preváricator, prevaricâtion, extërminator
Invisible before liquid sounds r and l: cãre (which rhymes with prâyer), lãir (which is a one-syllable version of lâyer), ŏil (which rhymes with lŏyal), whîle (*wîyəl), fâil (*fâyəl), sêal (*sêeyəl), knêel down = Nêil, Nêill names (*nêeyəl), líttle (as -le), céntre (as -re, BrE, AmE -er)
IPA /eɪ/ â, âi, ây, â●e, âe, âigh, âu, eâ, èy, èi, èigh, è●e
â: grâvy, pâcy, grâcious, nâval, navy, nâvy, ânal, zâny, stâble, crâving, bâgel, potâto, râzor BrE vâpour AmE vâpor
â●e: sâme, gâme, câme, sâve, bâse, trâce, pâce, crâve, lâser, hâver, râve, nâvel stomach Jâmes, hâzel, pâge, nâme, tâme, fâme, flâme, hâte, gâte, fâte, lâte, wâde, câve, brâve, stâge, grâde, phâse time, moon = fâze confuse, jâde, fâde, brâke speed, lâne road, bâne, mâne horse, gâte open, hâte, loathe
âi before l: nâil âil quâil fâil wâil tâil tâilor Tâylor before n: pâin stâin grâin trâin brâin drâin lâin lie detâin retâin remâin Câin mâin chief Mâine
before m: âim clâim mâim clâim âid mâid râid wâif mâize Crâig Hâig Hâigh (= Hâgue) gâit walk trâit trâitor
ây final: dây sây plây jây delây wây trây brây hây prây prayer slây kill
before -er: lâyer slâyer (but not prãyer)
âe: Gâelic Ireland Ísrâel mâelstrom phâeton
âigh: strâight Hâight Ashbury
âu: gâuge
eâ: greât breâk pieces, off
èy: thèy grèy Lèyton whèy fèy prèy on
èi: vèin vèil bèige rèin ride
èigh final: invèigh nèigh slèigh snow
before t: wèight frèight èight
è●e: crèpe
IPA /əʊ/ ô, ôa, ôe, ô•e, ôu, ôugh, ôw, ew
ô with Latin-style suffixes: hôkum, fôcus, hôcus-pôcus
plus y, etc.: pôny, hôly, Tôny, dôzy, rôly-pôly, nôsey, bôgey, phôney (or phony), Jôdie, Jôdy, Jôni, Jôannie, BrE côsy, AmE côzy
final: sô therefore, nô not, gô, frô, lô behold, cô-
also: grôss, bôth
ôh: ôh, dôh, sôh music
before l, -ld (can be /ɒʊ/): pôll vote, sôul, , ôld, côld, gôld, hôld, sôld
ôa before l: fôal, gôal
before t: gôat, côat, ôat, stôat, bôat, flôat
before k: clôak, ôak
before d: gôad, tôad, rôad
before f: ôaf, lôaf
before m: rôam wander (= Rôme), glôam
ôe final: tôe, dôe, Côe, fôe, hôe, Jôe, Pôe, rôe, wôe, Defôe, flôe ice
ô●e: hôme, vôte, nôte, bôde, explôde, nôde, tône, lône, cône, pôle wood, jôke, dôze, Rôme city, rôte routine = wrôte write, nôse, expôse, brôke, spôke, brôken, spôken, tôken
plus -er: ôver, Dôver, clôver, Grôver, grôcer
plus -or: rôtor, môtor, dônor
oûgh: dôugh bread, althôugh, thôugh
ôw: sôw seed, knôw knowledge, slôw, grôw, bestôw, flôw water, Ôwen, môw, lôw down, crôw, thrôw, glôw
ew: sew needle
IPA /aɪ/ î, îe, î●e, îgh, îg, ŷ, ŷ●e, ŷe, eî
î: Î me hî greeting crîsis Îsis Chrîst fîery wîry shîny tîny lîme sublîme
unstressed: álibî nûclêî fránchîse mërchandîse
îe final: vîe lîe dîe dead tîe
î●e: îce nîce tîme fîne lîne slîme twîce lîce rîpe swîpe smîle stîle field
îgh: final: hîgh up sîgh nîgh
before t: tîght frîght brîght nîght plîght sîght
îg before n: sîgn resîgn desîgn
aî in place names: Caîro Thaîland Dubaî Sînaî
ŷ: flŷ bŷ whŷ trŷ rhŷme spŷ drŷ sprŷ relŷ denŷ defŷ stŷ pig, eye
from -îe before -íng: vŷing lŷing dŷing tŷing (from vîe lîe dîe tîe, cf. trŷing crŷing)
ŷ●ê: tŷpe stŷle mode
ŷe: stŷe eye eŷe sight aŷe yes dŷe colour
eî: heîght Fáhrenheît seîsmic O’Reîlly feîsty BrE eîther BrE neîther
IPA /aʊ/ òu, òugh, òw, àù, ào
òu: òut, fòul bad, blòuse, tròusers, clòud, thòu, clòut, pròud, wòund wînd, gròund, mòunt, mòuntain, jòust, fòund, dòubt (*dòut), lòuse insect
òugh final: bòugh tree, slòugh swamp = Slòugh town, BrE plòugh
òw final: hòw, nòw, còw, vòw, wòw, bòw down, sòw pig, AmE plòw
before n: bròwn, tòwn, dòwn, fròwn, cròwn, dròwn, renòwn
before l: fòwl bird, òwl, tròwel
before y: dòwry, Lòwry, Bòwery, fròwsty
àù, from German, etc.: àùtobàhn, sàùerkràùt, Sàùdi, Bíssàù, Nàssàù
ào from Chinese, etc.: Mào, Tào, Jào, Làos country
IPA /ɔɪ/ ŏi ŏy
ŏi before n: jŏin, cŏin, rejŏin, lŏin
before l: fŏil, bŏil, tŏil
before ce: rejŏice, vŏice
before st: clŏister, hŏist, jŏist
before t: quŏits, BrE gŏitre, AmE gŏiter
ŏy final: bŏy, jŏy, tŏy, deplŏy, Rŏy, Trŏy, destrŏy
before st: ŏyster
before l: lŏyal, rŏyal
IPA /ɪə(r)/ êar êer êre ìêr êir
êar: êar hêar ear nêar têar cry fêar Pêarson drêary wêary blêary
êer: bêer quêer vêer lêer venêer êerie
êre: hêre there mêre revêre wê’re we are
ìêr: tìêr seats frontìêr piêrce
êir: wêird wêir water
IPA /eə(r)/ ãre ãir ãyr ãyer éãr ére
ãre: fãre money, food spãre shãre pãre cut bãre nude cãre wãres goods stãre look
ãr: before y: wãry vãry scãry Mãry
before i: vâriable shãring
ãir: final: ãir breathe hãir fãir reasonable, fun lãir stãir step flãir
before y: fãiry hãiry
ãyr: Ãyrshire
ãyer: prãyer
éãr: béãr animal, tolerate, carry téãr rip wéãr clothes péãr fruit
ére: whére place thére here ére before
IPA /(j)ʊə(r)/ ûre ûr eûr eŵr
This sound could just as well be shown as ùr, but the u is clearly cognate with other final-mute-e words such as Jûne.
ûre: pûre cûre abjûre lûre
ûr: dûring dûrable cûrable pûrest fûry fûrious jûror jûry court Ûrals Arctûrus Epicûrus mûral
eûr: neûron neurótic Eûrope
eŵr: Jeŵry Jew Neŵry
IPA /aɪə(r)/ îr îar îer îre ŷr ŷre
îr: fîry wîry îrony Mîra Hîram choîr
îre: fîre wîre desîre mîre spîre îre irâte
îar: lîar lie brîar
îer: fîery
ŷr before a: gŷrate Mŷra tŷrant
before o: gŷroscope pyromânia pyrotéchnic tŷro
ŷre: lŷre music pŷre
Consonants
IPA /p/ p, pp
p: píll, pùt, pâper, hôped, cláp, píp, stóp, úp, soûp, droôp, wêep, peêp, híp
pp: pépper, stópped, hópped, clápping, rípper, ápple, rípple, púppy, cópper
IPA /b/ b, bb
b: bŏy, bâke, bîcycle, bâsin, mób, bàrber, snób, snúb, húsband, róbin, bíscuit, bénd, bāth, ablâze, âble, troúble, mâybe, ôbôe
bb: rúbber, ríbbon, ábbey, ébb, róbber, dúbbed, rábbit, Bóbby, búbble
IPA /t/ t, tt, bt, pt, ed, th
t: tín, tén, toô, trâin, tót, trîte, tríp, tâste, déft, bít, hát, côat, bôat, àrt, tàrt, flïrt, átmosphere
tt: bétter, létter, cáttle, báttle, bóttle, ráttle, bétting, sétting, kéttle, néttle, cátty, bátty, tátty, Bétty, pótty, atténtion
ed, inflexion of past tense verbs after unvoiced consonants: āsked, slípped, hôped, áxed, hélped, chānced, kícked, stópped, lócked, cáshed, míxed, âped, grôssed
bt: dòubt, débt, súbtle
pt: recêipt, ptàrmigan, Ptómely, pterodáctyl
th: Kathmandû, Ánthony (= Ántony, a less common variant, as in Màrk Ántony)
IPA /d/ d, dd
d: dím, dénse, dîce, dúll, rêad, réad = réd, nêed, stéady, réady, héad, Êden, lâden, rámmed, fílled (ed not 't' after voiced sound, compare above)
dd: rúdder, ádder, ládder, rúdder, kídding, ríddance, Éddie, dóddle, gíddy
IPA /k/ k, ck, c, cc, ch, cq, q, g, kk
k: kíll, Kenneth, boòk, loòk, dàrk, mêek, pêak, àrk Noah, ínk, thínk, ránk
ck, not initial: báck, néck, síck, déck, píck, wíck, wícked, máckintosh, féckless, réckless, gécko, décker bus = Décker person, tick correct
c before back vowels a, o and u (and also in encephalîtis): cát animal, cán, còme, câter, cút, cárry, cãre, crâter, crâne, curve, cómmon, cót, confûse, cóntrary, contémporary, and finally: àrc, plástic, tíc twitch
cc pronounced 'k' only: sóccer, accrûe, occür, áccolade, and pronounced 'ks': áccident, áccess, accêde, cóccyx
ch: láchrymose, chŏrd, âche, écho, páchydërm
cq: acquîre, acquâint, acquiésce
q: Sádiq, Táriq, Qátar, qát drug
qu sounding like 'kw': quêen, requîre, quîet, quîte, quést, exquísite, líquid
qu as 'k' sound alone: líquor (*líkker), unìque (-êek), Jácqueline (*Jácklêen or = Jácklín)
g (for some speakers): léngth
kk: púkka, Dékker person
IPA /g/ g, gg
g: dóg, gún, bíg, ángle, fínger, dângle, ôgle, pâgan, flágon, drágon, bôgus
gg: égg, bígger, nóggin, dágger, dígging, flágging, nágged, bógged, flógged
IPA /tʃ/ ch tch c
ch: choôse, cheêse, beêch tree = bêach sand, chóp, cheêr, lúnch, châse
final after r: lürch, përch, àrch, màrch = Màrch, besmïrch
tch: ítch, ítchy, fétch, pátch, ẁatch, dítch, wítch, scótch, kétchup, nótch, and from Russian, etc., Pétrovi(t)ch, Mikhaîlovi(t)ch, and other patronymics
initial only in a few imported names: Tchaikóvsky, Tchicaî
c in -ic ending of names from Serbian, etc.: Ivanísevic, Ivánovic, Pílic, Káradjic, Milósevic
IPA /dʒ/ j dj g dg gg
j: Jâne, jélly, Jáck, jôke, Jóhn, Jônes, Jím James, jërsey, jejeûne, jàr, ajàr, jêep, Jûlie, Julŷ, môjo, cajôle, rejéct, jíngle, jángle, júngle, jîbe
dj: adjúst, adjöurn, ádjective, ádjúnct, Djiboûti, Abidján
g before e: géntle, âge, râge, gênius, gërm, Gërmany, pígeon, dúngeon, stürgeon, Nigêria, genétic, géneral, géntle, págeant
before i: gîant, gínger, giráffe, gímcrack
before y: gyrâte, gŷroscope, gým gymnasium, gýpsum
dg before e: brídge, édge, hédge, bádger, bádge, búdge, fúdge, cúdgel, dódge, Hódges, lódger, fídget, mídget, dúdgeon, búdgerigar
before i: cádging lódging búdgie
before y: pódgy dódgy édgy púdgy
gg: exággerate
di: sôldier
du: ŏrdure
IPA /f/ f ff ph gh ft
f: fêel, frŷ, frêe, fróg, fâke, fâith, óften, déaf, fít, íf, fŏrce, fåll
ff: óff, éffort, búffer, óffal, clíff, stíff, búff, púff
ph: Phílip, grāph, phâse, élephant, philósopher, hîeroglýph
gh: after ou: toúgh, enoúgh, roúgh, cóugh, tróugh
ft: óften, sóften
IPA /v/ v vv f ph
v: vieŵ, véry, vãry, shâve, háve, drîve, vâgue, vôte, vâcant, vîolent, Stêven, vāst, vãrious, avër, còver, hóver, ôver, léaven, lêave, wêave
vv: flívver, révved, bóvver
f: óf
ph: Stêphen
IPA /θ/ unvoiced th
thíck, thín, trûth, Rûth, rûthless, bréath, ûndernêath, thínk, píthy, ísthmus, bôth, lôth or lôath, bréath, wrêath, déath, mòuth noun
IPA /ð/ voiced th dh
th: thén, thére, thís, thát, thús, thôugh, thêrefore, òther, bròther, mòther, wíth, brêathe, wrêathe, lôathe, clôthe BrE eîther AmE êither, wéather clouds = whéther if, mòuth verb
dh: Rìyadh, édh
IPA /s/ s ss sc st c ps
s: sêe, såw, sêen, sôap, séven, séptic, sêrial drama, sŏurce, spécial, ûse noun, ûsage, āsk, flāsk, tāsk, bāsk, désk, whísk, dúsk
ss: máss, lóss, drôss, grôss, méssy, véssel, hássle, guéss, dréss, kíss, híss
sc scêne, scéptre, coalésce, acquiésce
st: whístle, lísten, grístle, mústn’t, hâsten, hústle, bústle, fāsten, cāstle
c before front vowels: nîce, îce, fâce, cêreal breakfast, spâcy, lícit, âce
ps: pseûd, psychólogy, psŷche
IPA /z/ z zz s
z: zoô, zône, zíp, hâzel, prétzel, ôzone, ádze, dôze, AmE côzy, râzor
zz: búzz, fízz, dázzle, púzzle, núzzle, jázz, whízz, búzzer
s: ûse verb, êasy, nôse, nâsal, lâser, BrE côsy, pôsy, pôse, lâser
IPA /ʃ/ sh ss sch s ch ce ci ti xi
sh: shíp, shóp, shoôt, shín, shîne, blúsh, mésh, dísh, ẁash, ásh, áshen, fáshion, shéd, shélter
ss: before i: pássion, físsion, míssion
before u: assůre, préssure
sch: schwà, schnápps, schmåltz
s: AmE sûre, insûre, BrE sůre, insůre
Si from Welsh and Irish: Siàn, Siobhăn *Shivăwn
Se from Irish: Seăn (= Shăwn, Shăun)
ch from French: machìne, nîche, pastîche, BrE moustàche, AmE mústáche, gauche (ô), brôchure, créche, panáche, Míchigan
ce: ôcean, crustâcean
ci: spêcies, spêcious, précious, vícious
ti: fíction, áction, nôtion, devôtion, môtion, lôtion, complêtion, fictítious
xi includes an initial 'k' sound: nóxious (*nókshəss), ánxious (*ánkshəss)
IPA /ʒ/ zh zu si su g
Most conveniently descibed as the zh sound, as this spelling is used when romanising from Russian, etc.; it is however, not normally spelt thus, si being the most frequent spelling. In French the sound is common and rendered with a j:
j: joie de vivre *zhwàdvìvrə, le mot juste *ləmô-zhûst
zh: Brézhnev, Solzhenýtzin, Yoûzhny
zu: ázure, sêizure
si: vísion, télevision, cohêsion, lêsion, Âsian
su in -sure: pléasure, tréasure, AmE lêisure BrE léisure, clôsure
g from French: Nigér
IPA /h/ h wh
h: hélp, hít, heáven, héll, hàrbour, hôme, hórror, hórrible, hôpe, ahéad, ahŏy, àhà, Mahôney, enhānce, Hárris, Hámpstead, háppen, hápless
wh: who (*hû), whôle, whoôping-cóugh
IPA /m/ m mm mb mn
m: múch, môst, Mîchael (*Mŷcle), émpty, mén, míx, glámour, ámber, ámble, whím, dímple, crúmple, crúmble, húmble, ámber, ámplify, woman (*wùmən), women (*wímən), mémory
mm: hámmer, dímmer, glímmer, jámming, swímming, swímmer, símmer, púmmel, búmmer, súmmer
mb final: thúmb, cômb, dúmb, lámb, clîmb, tomb (*toôm) plúmb
mn final: åutumn, hýmn, cólumn
IPA /n/ n nn kn pn
n: nô negative, neŵ old, nót negative, nîght day, nêed require, néver, níl, énemy, sént, nâtive, nôbody, nô-one, noôn, noôdle, nûisance, nést, nâve church
nn: Ánn, Ánne, dínner, ínnings, pénny, ínner, púnning, wínner, fúnnel, túnnel
kn: knôw knowledge, kneŵ know, knót tie, knîght chess, Sir, knêad dough, knêe, knâve jack
pn: pneumátic, pneumônia
IPA /ŋ/ ng n
A restricted phoneme, the ng sound cannot begin a syllable (except in transcriptions of e.g. Vietnamese names) and so is not found initially, only medially and finally:
finally: thíng, síng, sáng, súng, sínger, hánger coat, hángar plane, wíng, spríng, lóng
the g sound added afterwards: lónger (*lóng-ger), fínger, ánger, húnger, ángle, síngle, dángle, Bángra
n before k: thínk, pínk, ínk, wínk, sínk, sánk, súnk, púnk, tánk, dánk, tánker, pínker, ánkle, wínkle, tínkle, línks link
before c: úncle, càrbuncle, ráncour, sánction, júnction, zínc
before x: ánxious (*ángshus or *ángkshus), mínx, jínx, lýnx cat
IPA /l/ l, ll
l: lôw, lót, lénd, fâil, pâil bucket, pâle pallid, Pôle Poland = pôle wood, pál, låw, lîght (*lîte), léss, râil, râiling, âiling, tâilor = Tâylor, trâil
ll: bùll, bùlly, wåll, åll, téll, dóll, pôll election, séll buy = céll prison, biology, wíll, wílling, hóller, tåller, álley, allót, álloy
IPA /r/ r, rr, rh, wr
r: rêad, réd colour, réad reading, réady, rót, rãre, rôads streets, rāther, rîce, ríddle, AmE rôdeo, BrE rodèo, rôad, rêcent, ràther
rr: árrow, fúrrow, farràgo, sórrow, sórry, mérry, shérry, whérry, bérry, hérring, Mórris, érror, pórridge, Hárry, fürry, BrE wòrry, AmE wörry
rh: rhŷme, rhýthm, rhétoric, rhêsus, Rhôdes name, Greece, rhôdedéndron
wr: wrîte, wrén, wrêak, wrŏught, wrést fight, wréstle, wrínkle, awrŷ
AmE pronounces r before a consonant and finally in words like àrm, hürt and ŏrder; BrE does not.
Sometimes a phantom final 'r' can be heard between two vowels, one ending, the other beginning, a word: Índia(r)and Srì Lánka
IPA /j/ y
y: yéllow, yoúng, yét, yoûth, yôke ox, yôlk egg, låwyer, såwyer
invisible before û: ûse, tûne, beaûtiful, mûte, mûsic, cûte, cûticle, ukelèlê
IPA /w/ w, wh, u, h
w: wéll, woòd, wísh, awây, wònder, wíll, wéather sunny, ẁant, ẁash, aẁash, wâve, wãry, BrE wòrry, AmE wörry, ẁaddle, ẁander, wónky
wh (pronounced 'hw' in AmE): ẁhat, whén, whére, whŷ, whénce, whéther if, whíp, whístle, whîte
u after q: quêen, quîte, quîet, quést, quáck, quíck, equéstrian, acquîre, quâint, equíp, qùarry, qùadrupéd, qùantum, qùantity, qùality
from Spanish: Nicarágua (-ágwa or -ágyûa), iguàna, marijuàna (*mariyəwànə)
h in two Hebraic names: Côhen, Ménuhin
ou from French, initial in Ouagadoûgou (Wág-)
IPA /χ/ kh, ch
distinguished by some speakers from /k/:
kh: shèikh, Khàlid, Khayyám
ch: lóch, Bàch, Búchan, Buchánan
IPA /ks/ x, xc, ks, kes, cks, cs, ches, chs
The grapheme x combines the phonemes /k/ and /s/. This is /gz/ for some AmE speakers in some words, for example exáct.
x: láx, tóxic, Níxon, wáx, wáxen, óx, óxen, píxie, táxi, bóx, bóxes, míx, séx, áxle, Téxas, México, hôax, extrême, Tríxie, Díxie, fáx (= fácts, whence it is derived), máximum, Báxter
xc: éxcellent, excél, excépt, excéss
chs: in names from German: Óchs (= óx), Fùchs
Accidental in plurals:
ks: bàrks, loòks, hoòks, spoôks, tålks, wålks, boòks, sêeks, fôlksy
kes: tâkes, sâkes, bâkes, câkes, jôkes, lîkes, êkes, nûkes, blôkes
cks: sócks, pícks, trícks, pécks, knócks, búcks, tícks marks
cs: àrcs, tícs nervous, mathemátics, lûnatics, mâniacs, médics, geriátrics, pediátrics, holístics
ches: âches, héadaches
Other double consonants, such as ts and ps, which are phonemes in some languages, also occur accidentally, as in géts and cŏrpse.