U.S. Congress
The United States Congress is the legislature of the United States of America. It includes the Continental Congresses (1775-1789) and the modern United States Congress (1789 to present).
The Continental Congresses
In September 1774 the colonies, without British authorization, sent delegates to Philadelphia to respond to harsh laws the British imposed on Massachusetts. It issued "The Declaration of Rights and Grievances" and called for a systematic boycott of British goods to add economic punch to their philosophical arguments for more home rule.
The First Continental Congress set up the Second Continental Congress which gathered in May 1775. War had broken out and the Congress took control of the army, waged war, and negotiated treaties. It declared independence on July 4, 1776, creating a new nation, the "United States of America." The Third Continental Congress (1776-1781) drafted the Articles of Confederation in 1777; they were ratified in 1781.
The Confederation Congress created by the Articles followed the same rules. Each state sent a delegation, which had one vote. Decisions required 9 votes (out of 13), and amendments had to be unanimous. Unable to levy taxes, it asked the states for money, printed paper money, and borrowed heavily. In the 1780s it convinced the states to give it their western lands, then started selling the lands to settlers. Its most notable legislation was the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which created the Northwest Territory of the United States.
The U.S. Congress
The U.S. Congress was created by Article 1 of the United States Constitution. The Congress has two houses ("bicameral"), compared to the one-house ("unicameral") Continental Congress. Members vote as individuals rather than as states. The new House of Representatives gave states seats in proportion to their population (counting all the whites of all ages, and 3/5 of the slaves.) Each state has two senators.
The U.S. Congress has significant power, tempered by the checks and balances provided by the executive and judiciary branches.
Bibliography
- Congressional Quarterly. Guide to Congress,
6th edition (2007) 1441 pages
- Congressional Quarterly. Politics in America: 2008 (2007); ISBN: 0-87289-547-5 1224pp, covers every member of Congress; details and samples
- Baker, Ross K. House and Senate, 3rd ed. New York: W. W. Norton. (2000).
- Barone, Michael, and Richard E. Cohen. The Almanac of American Politics, 2008 (2007), elaborate detail on every district and member; 1920 pages; new edition every 2 years since 1976
- Davidson, Roger H., and Walter J. Oleszek. (1998). Congress and Its Members, 6th ed. Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly.
- Hastert, Dennis, Tom Daschle, and David Silverberg. Congress for Dummies (2002)
- Lee, Frances and Bruce Oppenheimer. Sizing Up the Senate: The Unequal Consequences of Equal Representation. University of Chicago Press. (1999).
- Rimmerman, Craig A. "Teaching Legislative Politics and Policy Making." Political Science Teacher, 3 (Winter 1990): 16–18.
- Ritchie, Donald A. "What Makes a Successful Congressional Investigation." OAH Magazine of History, 11 (Spring 1997): 6–8.
- Tarr, David R., and Ann O'Connor. Congress A to Z (CQ Congressional Quarterly) (4th ed 2003) 605pp
History
- American National Biography (1999), contains biographies of all politicians no longer alive.
- Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774-2005. 2005. biographical entries for every person who ever served; Biographical Directory online.
- Alexander, De Alva Stanwood. History and Procedure of the House of Representatives. (1916) online edition
- Carroll, Holbert N. The House of Representatives and Foreign Affairs 1958 online edition
- Davidson, Roger H., Susan Webb Hammond, Raymond W. Smock, eds; Masters of the House: Congressional Leadership over Two Centuries Westview Press, 1998 online edition
- Galloway, George B. History of the House of Representatives 1962 online edition
- Herrick, Rebekah. "Gender effects on job satisfaction in the House of Representatives." Women and Politics, (2001). 23 (4), 85–98.
- Hunt, Richard. (1998). "Using the Records of Congress in the Classroom," OAH Magazine of History, 12 (Summer): 34–37.
- MacNeil, Neil. Forge of Democracy: The House of Representatives (1963) popular history by a well-informed journalist online edition
- Remini, Robert V. The House: The History of the House of Representatives (2006) the standard scholarly history
- Ritchie, Donald A. (1997). "What Makes a Successful Congressional Investigation." OAH Magazine of History, 11 (Spring): 6–8.
- Zelizer, Julian E. On Capitol Hill: The Struggle to Reform Congress and its Consequences, 1948-2000 (2004)
- Zelizer, Julian E. ed. The American Congress: The Building of Democracy (2004), essays by leading scholars