Korean War

The Korean War has been called America’s “forgotten war”, neglected on the timeline between the twin cataclysms of World War II and Vietnam. The stage for war was set back in the late summer of 1945, when the White House and the Kremlin agreed on a demarcation line (38° N latitude) dividing Korea into two halves, with the Communist Russians controlling the North and the United States acting as policeman for the Republic in the South. Following this agreement, the superpowers ceased to concern themselves much with the country of Korea. In 1948 and 1949 both Russia and America withdrew the majority of their forces from Korea.

On June 25, 1950, Kim Il Sung, the leader of Communist North Korea, sent troops of the North Korea People’s Army across the 38th parallel and invaded South Korea, heading toward its capital, Seoul. According to historian David Halberstam, “South Korea became important only after the North Korean Communists struck in the night; its value was psychological rather than strategic—the enemy had crossed a border.”

The Cold War

The United Sattes was committed to a Containment strategy for the Cold War. That meant Communist expansion had to be resisted, though the enemy could pick the time and place.

Early Movements

General Douglas MacArthur, Commander of American Forces in the Far East, and seventy years old at the time, was ordered to sort out the problem. MacArthur, headquartered in Toyko, flew to South Korea on June 27. The Eighth U.S. Army in Japan was on the way by June 30. The Americans would help defend South Korea from the Communist invaders. President Truman deemed America’s effort a “police action”. It would be the first time in the post-World War II environment that America would assume the role of World Cop.

In Washington, D.C. on July 19, President Truman asked Congress to approve an emergency defence appropriation of $11 billion. Truman, like Roosevelt before him in 1940, wanted 50,000 war planes built a year. Congress appropriated $8 billion for aircraft production for 1951.

On September 15, 1950, General MacArthur led a victorious assault on the port of Inchon on the west coast of South Korea, just west of the capital city. This victory finally broke the momentum of the North, which had maintained the upper hand in combat during July and August. The Americans routed the enemy then marched east into Seoul, subduing the invaders by September 27. The Americans had the North Koreans on the run. The war looked set to come to a quick end as the Communists were retreating back above the 38th parallel. But President Truman made a fateful decision which led to the war dragging on for two more years. He gave MacArthur orders to give chase. Chairman Mao of Communist China had warned the U.S. not to travel north of the 38th parallel, yet the American forces invaded North Korea anyway on October 7. Subsequently Chairman Mao sent Chinese troops into North Korea to help defend its Communist ally against the invading Westerners. By the end of November 300,000 Chinese troops were in combat. The Americans, in tandem with UN Forces, saw heavy fighting over the next few months. Back in America, more than a few government officials as well as journalists wondered if this was the beginning of World War III. On December 16, 1950, President Truman declared a National Emergency, warning the American people, “The increasing menace of the forces of communist aggression requires that the national defense of the United States be strengthened as quickly as possible.”

The Korean War wasn’t to be the onset of Armageddon, but it was a grim and dirty war, a prototype of the Vietnam War experience in its years of “stalemate” fighting in a rugged landscape strange to Americans.

Stalemate

The Korean War dragged on. General MacArthur was recalled back to Washington, D.C. on April 11, 1951. General Matthew B. Ridgway assumed command of the UN forces in the Far East and General James A. Van Fleet of the Eighth Army in Korea. America was destined for two more years of scattershot combat and futile negotiations. U.S. defense budget for 1951 was $48.3 billion; for 1952, $62.2 billion; for 1953, $53.2 billion. Before the war came to a close President Truman would reach the end of his first elected term as President and chose not to run again. During his farewell radio address to the American people on January 15, 1953, Truman said this:

"In Korea our men are fighting as valiantly as Americans have ever fought—because they know they are fighting in the same cause of freedom in which Americans have stood ever since the beginning of the Republic. . . . Now, once in a while I get a letter from some impatient person asking, Why don’t we get it over with? Why don’t we issue an ultimatum—make all-out war, drop the atomic bomb? For most Americans, the answer is quite simple: we are not made that way. We are a moral people. Peace is our goal, with justice and freedom."

The Korean War dragged on until an armistice was signed between North Korea, the United States, and China on July 27, 1953. According to the official count, 33,629 American soldiers were killed in action on the battlefield in the Korean War, mostly by Chinese—not North Korean—divisions. 110,000 Americans were wounded or missing-in-action. The UN forces lost 60,371. The U.S. Army estimate of enemy killed exceeded one million, the majority Chinese troops. The war-torn landscape of the Korean peninsula, after three years of ground fighting and saturation bombardment by American air power, was in ruins.

Postscript

Following the ending of the Korean War the Cold War remained at an intense boil. Joseph Stalin had died on March 5, 1953 but the Soviet Union, now under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev, remained just as fearsome to the American people.

President Dwight D. Eisenhower, a Republican, formerly Allied Commander in Chief in Europe during World War II; and his vice president, Richard Nixon, both distrusted the Communists as much as President Ronald Reagan would in the 1980s, and the Cold War haunted the world political scene of the 1950s. One crisis after another threatened world stability: Chinese Communist aggression in the Formosa Straits in 1954 and 1958, Egypt’s seizure of the Suez Canal in 1956, unrest in Jordan and Syria in 1957, the Soviet Union shooting America’s U-2 spy plane out of its airspace in 1960. The two nuclear powers lived in constant fear and dread of one another and competed in a dangerous arms race to maintain a global balance of power. That their arsenals contained enough firepower to turn the surface of the earth into a sterile moonscape led the two superpowers by mutual fear to maintain an inhibition against the deployment of atomic bombs. The militaries of both countries were still being fortified by men and matériel for ground-based operations. The American government spent more than $50 billion in 1953 to build up its military services. The Department of the Air Force received $15 billion of that sum that year. The defense industry was making a killing in order to preserve the peace.

Bibliography

Historiography and reference

• Brune, Lester H. ed. The Korean War: Handbook of the Literature and Research Greenwood Press, (1996), 464pp online edition
• Matray, James I. Historical Dictionary of the Korean War (1991), best reference
• Millett, Allan R “A Reader's Guide To The Korean War” Journal of Military History (1997) Vol. 61 No. 3; p. 583+
• Millett, Allan R, “A Reader's Guide To The Korean War” Journal of Military History (1997) Vol. 61 No. 3; p. 583+ full text in JSTOR; free online revised version
• Millett, Allan R. "The Korean War: A 50 Year Critical Historiography," Journal of Strategic Studies 24 (March 2001), pp. 188-224. full text in Ingenta and Ebsco; discusses major works by British, American, Korean, Chinese, and Russian authors
• Summers, Harry G. Korean War Almanac (1990), unreliable
• Tucker, Spencer C. et al. Encyclopedia of the Korean War: A Political, Social, and Military History (2002), 851pp, very good reference
• West, Philip. "Interpreting the Korean War" The American Historical Review, Vol. 94, No. 1 (Feb., 1989), pp. 80-96 in JSTOR

Origins, politics and diplomacy

• Beisner, Robert L. Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War (2006), 800pp
• Condit, Doris M. The Test of War, 1950-1953. (1988) on the Pentagon leadership.
• Cumings, Bruce. The Origins of the Korean War (2 vol 1981, 1990), sympathetic to North Korea; stresses civil war aspects; long but unreliable sections on "rollback" option
• Dingman, Roger. "Atomic Diplomacy During the Korean War." International Security 13 (1988-89), how Eisenhowwer threatened to use nuclear weapons
• Foot, Rosemary. The Wrong War: American Policy and the Dimensions of the Korean Conflict, 1950-1953 (1985)
• Goncharov, Sergei N., John W. Lewis; and Xue Litai, Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War, Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8047-2521-7, diplomatic
• Hamby, Alonzo. Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman (1998) excerpt and text search
• Jervis, Robert. "The Impact of the Korean War on the Cold War" The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Dec., 1980), pp. 563-592 in JSTOR
• Jian, Chen. China's Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation (1994) excerpt and text search; online edition
• Kaufman, Burton I. The Korean War: Challenges in Crisis, Credibility, and Command. (1999), politics of war;online edition
• Matray, James I. "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," The Journal of American History, Vol. 66, No. 2 (Sep. 1979), pp. 314-333 in JSTOR
• Ohanian, Lee E. "The Macroeconomic Effects of War Finance in the United States: World War II and the Korean War" American Economic Review. 87#1 (1997) pp 23-40 in JSTOR
• Spanier, John W. The Truman-MacArthur Controversy and the Korean War (1959).
• Stairs, Denis. The Diplomacy of Constraint: Canada, the Korean War, and the United States (1974), esp ch 4 on containing America's militarism
• Stueck, William. Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History (2004) excerpt and text search; online edition
• Stueck, William, ed. The Korean War in World History. (2004). 216 pages. diplomatic history; includes:
  • Allan R. Millett, "Korean People: Missing in Action in the Misunderstood War."
  • Kathryn Weathersby, "Soviet Role in the Korean War."
  • Chen Jian, "China's Road to the Korean War Revisited"
• Stueck, Jr., William J. The Korean War: An International History (1995), diplomacy
• Thornton, Richard C. Odd Man Out: Truman, Stalin, Mao and the Origins of Korean War (2001) excerpt and text search
• Zhang Shu-gang, Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950-1953 (1995)

Soldiers and support

• Bardbury, William C. et al. Mass Behavior in Battle and Captivity: The Communist Soldier in the Korean War (1968)
• Biderman, Albert D. March to Calumny (1963), best on US POWs; rebuts charges (made by Eugene Kinkead) that 1/3 collaborated
• Cowdrey, Albert E. The Medics' War (GPO, 1987)
• Donnelly, William M. "'The Best Army that Can Be Put in the Field in the Circumstances': The U.S. Army, July 1951–July 1953," The Journal of Military History 71#3 July 2007, pp. 809-847 in Project Muse
• Huston, James A. Guns and Butter, Powder and Rice: U.S. Army Logistics in the Korean War (1989)
• Kindsvatter, Peter S. American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam. (2003). 472 pp.
• Westover, John G. Combat Support in Korea (1987), oral history interviews from soldiers in of corps of engineers, transportation, chemical. signal, medical, ordnance, quartermaster and MP's; 212pp; online edition
• Wubben, H. H. "American Prisoners of War in Korea." American Quarterly 22#1 (1970) pp 3-19 online at JSTOR

Combat operations

• Appleman, Roy E. South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (GPO, 1961); good official US Army history of fighting in 1950 online edition
• Appleman, Roy E. Disaster in Korea: The Chinese Confront MacArthur (1989) online edition
• Appleman, Roy E.. East of Chosin: Entrapment and Breakout in Korea (1987)
• Appleman, Roy E.. Escaping the Trap: The U.S. Army in Northeast Korea, 1950 (1987)
• Appleman, Roy E.. Ridgway Duels for Korea (1990).
• Blair, Clay. The Forgotten War (1988), elaborate detail based on interviews
• Crane, Conrad C. American Airpower Strategy in Korea, 1950-1953. (2000).
• Field Jr., James A. History of United States Naval Operations: Korea, (2001), official U.S. Navy history
• Domes, Juergen. Peng Teh-huai (1985), Chinese commander
• Flint, Roy K. "Task Force Smith and the 24th Division." in Charles E. Heller and William A. Stofft eds. America's First Battles: 1776-1965 (1986), 266-99. A wide-ranging look at the Army and its weaknesses at the very beginning of the war
• Futrell, Robert Frank et al. The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950-1953 (GPO, 1961), the best military analysis
• Halberstam, David. The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War (2007), interviews with veterans
• Halliday, Jon and Bruce Cumings. Korea: The Unknown War (1988); hostile to US & ROK; well illustrated
• Hallion, Richard. The Naval Air War in Korea (1986)
• Hastings, Max. The Korean War (2000), British perspective excerpt and text search
• Hermes, Walter G. Truce Tent and Fighting Front (1992), covers 1951-53 online edition
• James, D. Clayton. Years of MacArthur vol 3, 1945-64 (1985), the standard scholarly biography
• Knox, Donald. The Korean War, An Oral History (1985)
• Montross, Lynn et al., History of U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950–1953, 5 vols. (Washington: Historical Branch, G-3, Headquarters, Marine Corps, 1954–72),
• Mossman, Billy C. Ebb and Flow: November 1950 - July 1951 (1990), good official history online edition
• Russ, Martin. Breakout: The Chosin Reservoir Campaign, Korea 1950, , Penguin, 2000, 464 pages, ISBN 0-14-029259-4
• Schnabel, James W. U.S. Army in the Korean War: Policy and Directions: The First Year (GPO, 1972), good official history online edition
• Toland, John. In Mortal Combat: Korea, 1950-1953 (1991), combat narratives
• Varhola, Michael J. Fire and Ice : The Korean War, 1950-1953 (2000) excerpt and text search
• Wainstock, Dennis D. Truman, Macarthur, and the Korean War (1999) online edition
• Schnabel, James F. United States Army in the Korean War: Policy and Direction: The First Year (1972). official US Army history; full text online

Allies

• Farrar-Hockley, General Sir Anthony. The British Part in the Korean War, HMSO, 1995, hardcover 528 pages, ISBN 0-11-630962-8
• Grey, Jeffrey. The Commonwealth Armies and the Korean War: An Alliance Study. (1988).
• Johnston, William. A War of Patrols: Canadian Army Operations in Korea. U. of British Columbia Press, 2003. 426 pp.
• Korea Institute of Military History. The Korean War (U of Nebraska press: 3 vol 2001), 2400pp, official history by South Korean army
• Millett, Allan R. Their War for Korea: American, Asian, and European Combatants and Civilians, 1945–1953. Brassey's, 2003. 310 pp.
• O’Neill, Robert. Australia in the Korean War, 1950-1953. 2 vols. (1981, 1985)
• Watson, Brent Byron. Far Eastern Tour: The Canadian Infantry in Korea, 1950–1953. 2002. 256 pp.

Primary sources

• Bassett, Richard M. And the Wind Blew Cold: The Story of an American POW in North Korea. (2002). 117 pp.
• Heller, Francis H. ed. The Korean War (1977), 251pp recollections of leaders and coments by scholars
• Marshall, S. L. A. The River and the Gauntlet (1953) on combat
• Ridgway, Matthew B. "The Korean War: How We Met the Challenge: How All-Out Asian War Was Averted: Why MacArthur Was Dismissed: Why Today’s War Objectives Must Be Limited" (1967).
• Westover, John G. Combat Support in Korea (1987), oral history interviews from members of corps of engineers, transportation, chemical, signal, medical, ordnance, quartermaster and MPs; 212pp; online edition
• Yu, Bin, and Xiaobing Li, eds Mao's Generals Remember Korea, (2001), 328 pages

---