Space debris

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Space debris, also called orbital debris, space junk or space waste are man-made objects in Earth orbit that no longer serve any useful purpose. They consist of everything from entire spent rocket stages and defunct satellites to explosion fragments, paint flakes, dust, and slag from solid rocket motors, coolant released by RORSAT nuclear powered satellites, and other small particles.[1]

Space debris has become a growing concern in recent years, since collisions at orbital velocities can be highly damaging to functioning satellites and can also produce even more space debris in the process, called Kessler Syndrome. Some spacecraft, like the International Space Station, are now armored to mitigate damage with this hazard. Astronauts on EVAs are also vulnerable.

Some History

According to Edward Tufte's book Envisioning Information, space debris objects have included a glove lost by astronaut Ed White on the first American space-walk, a camera Michael Collins lost near the spacecraft Gemini 10, garbage bags, a wrench and a toothbrush. Sunita Williams of STS-116 also lost a camera during an EVA. Most of those unusual objects have re-entered the atmosphere of the Earth within weeks due to the orbits where they were released and their small sizes. Things like these are not major contributors to the space debris environment. On the other side, explosion events are a major contribution to the space debris problem. About 100 tons of fragments generated during approximately 200 such events are still in orbit. Space debris is most concentrated in low Earth orbit, though some extends out past geosynchronous orbit.

The first official Space Shuttle collision avoidance maneuver was during STS-48 in September 1991. A 7-second reaction control system burn was performed to avoid debris from Kosmos satellite 955.

Dangers of Space Debris

Clouds of very small particles may cause erosive damage, like sandblasting.

Mitigation measures

In order to mitigate the generation of additional space debris, a number of measures have been proposed: The passivation of spent upper stages by the release of residual fuels is aimed at decreasing the risk of on-orbit explosions that could generate thousands of additional debris objects.

Taking satellites out of orbit at the end of their operational life would also be an effective mitigation measure. This could be facilitated with a "terminator tether," an electrodynamic tether that is rolled out, and slows down the spacecraft.[2] In cases when a direct (and controlled) de-orbit would require too much fuel the satellite can also be brought to an orbit where atmospheric drag would cause it to de-orbit after some years. Such a maneuver was successfully performed with the French Spot-1 satellite at the end of 2003. It will re-enter in approximately 15 years.

In orbital altitudes where it would not be economically feasible to de-orbit a satellite, like in the geostationary ring they are brought to a graveyard orbit where no operational satellites are present.

Proposals have been made for ways to "sweep" space debris back into Earth's atmosphere, including automated tugs, laser brooms to vaporize or nudge particles into rapidly-decaying orbits, or huge aerogel blobs to absorb impacting junk and eventually fall out of orbit with them trapped inside. However, currently most effort is being devoted to prevention of collisions by keeping track of larger debris, and prevention of more debris.

Other ideas include the gathering of larger objects into an orbital "junk yard", where they could be used as resources should future needs arise, while keeping them out of the way.

Space debris measurements

The U.S. Strategic Command is maintaining a catalogue currently containing about 10,000 objects, also to prevent misinterpretation as hostile missiles. Observation data gathered by a number of ground based radar facilities and telescopes as well as by a space based telescope[3] is used to maintain this catalogue. Nevertheless, the majority of debris objects remain unobserved. There are more than 600,000 objects larger than 1 cm in orbit (according to the ESA Meteoroid and Space Debris Terrestrial Environment Reference, the MASTER-2005 model).

Other sources of knowledge on the actual space debris environment include measurement campaigns by the ESA Space Debris Telescope, TIRA[4], Goldstone radar, Haystack radar,[5] and the Cobra Dane phased array radar.[6] The data gathered during these campaigns is used to validate models of the debris environment like ESA-MASTER. Such models are the only means of assessing the impact risk caused by space debris as only larger objects can be regularly tracked.

Returned space debris hardware is also a valuable source of information on the (submillimetre) space debris environment. The LDEF satellite deployed by STS-41-C Challenger and retrieved by STS-32 Columbia spent 68 months in orbit. The close examination of its surfaces allowed the analysis of the directional distribution and the composition of debris flux. The EURECA satellite deployed by STS-46 Atlantis in 1992 and retrieved by STS-57 Endeavour in 1993 could provide additional insight.

The solar arrays of the Hubble Space Telescope returned during missions STS-61 Endeavour and STS-109 Columbia are an important source of information on the debris environment. The impact craters found on the surface were counted and classified by ESA to provide another means for validating debris environment models.

Gabbard diagrams

Space debris groups resulting from satellite breakups are often studied using scatterplots known as Gabbard diagrams. In a Gabbard diagram the perigee and apogee altitudes of the individual debris fragments resulting from a collision are plotted with respect to the orbital period of each fragment. The distribution of the resulting diagram can be used to infer information such as direction and point of impact.[7] [8]


Significant debris-creation events

The largest space debris incident in history was the Chinese anti-satellite weapon (ASAT) test on January 11, 2007.[9] The event created more than 1900 pieces (updated 7/4/07) of trackable debris (approximately golf ball size or larger), estimates of over 1 million pieces 1mm or larger and over 35,000 pieces 1cm or larger. The debris event is more significant than previous ASAT tests in that the debris field is in a higher orbital plane resulting in deorbit times of 35 years and greater. In June, 2007, NASA's Terra environmental spacecraft was the first to be moved in order to prevent impacts.[10]

An event of similar magnitude occurred on February 19, 2007, when a Russian Briz-M booster stage exploded in orbit over Australia. The booster had been launched on February 28, 2006, carrying an Arabsat-4A communication satellite but malfunctioned before it could use all of its fuel. The explosion was captured on film by several astronomers, but due to the path of the orbit the debris cloud has been hard to quantify using radar. Although similar in magnitude, the debris field is at a lower altitude than the Chinese ASAT test and much debris re-enters the atmosphere in a relatively short time. As of February 21, 2007, over 1,000 fragments had been identified.[11][12] A third breakup event also occurred on 14 February 2007 as recorded by Celes Trak.[13] This makes three observed events in the first two months of 2007. In 2006, the most breakups occurred since 1993 with eight breakups.[14]

Significant debris impact events

The first verified collision with catalogued space debris occurred in 1996, tearing off a boom from the French satellite Cerise.[15]

Lottie Williams is on record as the first and only (as of September 2006) person ever to be hit by space debris created by humans. While walking in a park in Tulsa, Oklahoma, on January 22, 1997 at 3:30 am, she noticed a light in the sky that she said looked like a meteor. Minutes later, Williams was hit in the shoulder by a 6-inch blackened metal object that was later confirmed to be part of the fuel tank of a Delta II rocket which had launched a U.S. Air Force satellite in 1996. Ms. Williams was not injured.[16]

On October 10, 2006, a cottage in Germany was burned down by a fire that was believed to be started by a small bolide (no more than 10mm). A 77 year old man was badly injured by the fire.[17]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Technical report on space debris (PDF). United Nations (1999). Retrieved on 2006-04-05.ISBN 92-1-100813-1
  2. ↑ Christensen, Bill. The Terminator Tether Aims to Clean Up Low Earth Orbit. Retrieved on 2006-03-08.
  3. ↑ The Space-Based Visible Program. MIT Lincoln Laboratory. Retrieved on 2006-03-08.
  4. ↑ Klinkrad, H.. Monitoring Space – Efforts Made by European Countries (PDF). Retrieved on 2006-03-08.
  5. ↑ MIT Haystack Observatory. Retrieved on 2006-03-08.
  6. ↑ AN/FPS-108 COBRA DANE. Retrieved on 2006-03-08.
  7. ↑ Portree, David and Loftus, Joseph (1999). Orbital Debris: A Chronology. NASA. See p.13.
  8. ↑ Whitlock, David O. (2004). History of On-Orbit Satellite Fragmentations. NASA JSC. "Gabbard diagrams of the early debris cloud prior to the effects of perturbations, if the data were available, are reconstructed. These diagrams often include uncataloged as well as cataloged debris data. When used correctly, Gabbard diagrams can provide important insights into the features of the fragmentation."
  9. ↑ Chinese ASAT Test. Retrieved on 2007-07-04.
  10. ↑ Burger, Brian. NASA's Terra Satellite Moved to Avoid Chinese ASAT Debris. Retrieved on 2007-07-06.
  11. ↑ Rocket Explosion, Spaceweather.com, 22 Feb 2007. Retrieved on 2007-02-21.
  12. ↑ Than, Ker. Rocket Explodes Over Australia, Showers Space with Debris, Space.com, 21 February 2007. Retrieved on 2007-02-21.
  13. ↑ Recent Debris Events, celestrak.com. Retrieved on 2007-03-16.
  14. ↑ Spate of rocket breakups creates new space junk, NewScientist.com, 2007-01-17. Retrieved on 2007-03-16.
  15. ↑ CO2 prolongs life of space junk. BBC News. Retrieved on 2006-03-08.
  16. ↑ Today in Science History. Retrieved on 2006-03-08.
  17. ↑ German cottage destroyed by meteor. Retrieved on 2006-10-21.

External links

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