Memory of water

Memory of water is a phrase used by homeopaths to explain how the ethanol-based and/or water-based solutions they use might produce the results that they claim to see in their patients. Since homeopathic remedies are deliberately extremely diluted, it is highly unlikely that a therapeutic dose contains even a single molecule of the substance being diluted. This has led homeopaths to postulate a "memory of water"—the water somehow "remembers" the biologically active molecules that it had once been in contact with, and that "memory" then produces therapeutic effects. In a more general sense, the phrase is also used in connection with other esoteric or pseudoscienific claims that involve a memory effect connected with water.

Chemists and physicists generally see this notion as nonsense. The consensus of scientists working in the field is that water exists as a liquid and is continuously rearranging hydrogen-bonded network with motions on the picosecond (10⁻¹² s) time scale. A picture of a quickly rearranging network is very difficult to reconcile with liquid water structures that are sustained for more than a few picoseconds. Accordingly there is no room for a water "memory" in the current scientific view on the liquid.

The Benveniste study

In 1988, a French immunologist, Jacques Benveniste and colleagues published a paper in the prestigious journal Nature. Their data indicated that progressive dilutions (in an aqueous medium) might retain some qualities of various materials that had once been dissolved in it. In particular, they claimed to have measured effects on a biological process involved in the human immune response.

Human basophils are a granulocyte cell type accounting for 0.1–1% of white blood cells; these cells contain many "granules" which store inflammatory mediators, including histamine. These cells can be cultured readily and studied in vitro. Exposing these cells to anti-human-IgE antibodies triggers "degranulation", a process in which the granules fuse with the plasma membrane to release their contents, including histamine, into the extracellular fluid. At high concentrations (>10⁻⁶ M) histamine binds to H₂ receptors on the surface of the basophils. Basophil activation can be measured in several different ways. First, degranulated cells can be stained and then counted; this subjective measurement is prone to variable outcomes depending on the observer. Second, histamine release can be measured using fluorimetric assays. Third, the fusion of granules leads to the expression of the marker CD63; the percentage of basophils that express CD63 can be determined with flow-cytometry, and correlates well with histamine release.

Benveniste claimed that he and his colleagues found evidence that very high dilutions of anti-human-IgE (containing no molecules of the antibody) could induce degranulation of basophils. He concluded that it was the 'configuration' of molecules in the water that was biologically active. This added support to the homeopathic claim that there was a quality of water that allowed extremely high dilutions of chemicals to have a therapeutic effect even without any of the original material being present.

The French newspaper Le Monde covered this, referring to "la mémoire de la matière" (the memory of matter) and le souvenir de molécules biologiquement actives (recollection [by water] of biologically active molecules). In English, the phrase that became widespread was "memory of water". Le Monde made the paper a front page story, pointing out that if this work were correct, it would overthrow many of the foundations of physics.

Follow-up

Nature published the article with two unprecedented conditions: first, that the results must first be confirmed by other laboratories; second, that a team selected by Nature be allowed to investigate the Beneviste laboratory after publication. Benveniste accepted these conditions; the results were replicated in Milan, Italy; in Toronto, Canada; in Tel-Aviv, Israel and in Marseille, France, and the article was accompanied by an editorial titled "When to believe the unbelievable."

The follow-up investigation was conducted by a team including the editor of Nature, Dr John Maddox, American scientific fraud investigator and chemist Walter Stewart, and "professional pseudoscience debunker" James Randi. With the cooperation of Benveniste's team, under double-blind conditions, they failed to replicate the results. Benveniste refused to withdraw his claims, and in July 1988 the team published a detailed critique of Benveniste’s study. They claimed that the experiments were badly controlled statistically, that measurements that conflicted with the claim had been excluded, that there was insufficient avoidance of contamination, and that there were questions of undisclosed conflict of interest, as the salaries of two coauthors of the published article were paid for under a contract with the French homeopathic manufacturing company Boiron et Cie..

Another group led by Benveniste has reproduced the results while others failed to reproduce the effects. Beneveniste et al. contend that the same conditions were not met in those laboratories.

Benveniste never retracted his claims. In the issue of Nature that carried the critique, Benveniste vigorously attacked the Nature team’s "mockery of scientific inquiry.". He maintained his position in later publications as well. Nature's last comment on this was their for Benveniste.

Other scientists

In 2003 Louis Rey, a chemist from Lausanne, reported that frozen samples of lithium and sodium chloride solutions prepared according to homeopathic prescriptions showed — after being exposed to radiation — different thermoluminescence peaks compared with pure water. Rey claimed that this suggested that the networks of hydrogen bonds in homeopathic dilutions were different. These results have never been replicated and are not generally accepted - even Benveniste criticised them, pointing out that they were not blinded

In January 2009, Luc Montagnier, the Nobel Laureate virologist who led the team that discovered the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), claimed that the DNA of pathogenic bacteria and viruses massively diluted in water emit radio waves that he can detect. This, he claimed, can also be used to detect the medicine in a homeopathic remedy. In 2010, at the age of 78, Montagnier announced that he would take on the leadership of a new research institute at Jiaotong University in Shanghai, where he plans to continue this work. He claims that the findings "are very reproducible and we are waiting for confirmation by other labs", but said, in an interview with Science, "There is a kind of fear around this topic in Europe. I am told that some people have reproduced Benveniste's results, but they are afraid to publish it because of the intellectual terror from people who don't understand it." Montagnier had called Benveniste "a modern Galileo", but the problem was that "his results weren't 100% reproducible".

In 2010, an Indian team claimed to have found that commercially manufactured metal-derived high-dilution remedies contain nanoparticles of the metals and their aggregates.

Other healers

Extravagant and seemingly bizarre claims about supernatural or mystical qualities of water have been made by some "alternative healers" who seek to sell tap water to the gullible. For example, practitioners of the Silva Method claim to "program" water to heal a person, long after the healer has programmed the water and is personally unavailable. These alternative healers focus on the effects of energies, generated by people, on water. For example, one paper, describing Qigong, has:

Subtle, or vibrational, energy is broadly defined as energy that is not generally recognized by mainstream physics and for which there are no means of measurement. ...

It is fundamental to many unexplained phenomena such as the power of spirituality and prayer, the effect of remote intention, the operation of homeopathy, and the functioning of the mind/body information network...

Masaru Emoto has built a business around selling water products. In a series of books — beginning with Messages from Water (1999) — he claims that ice crystals reflect the words, music, pictures — even thoughts and intentions — to which the droplets of water were exposed before being frozen. He also claims to detect the effects of healing energy on water (Pranic Healing):

After the healers projected their energy toward the water, ... the water that was healed with Pranic energy had impeccable crystal formation while the tap water's internal structure was chaotic.

Emoto makes some remarkably strong claims:

So where is the solution to the problem of global warming in this book? Well, because it shows that we can extract energy out of water. For example, the crystal photograph on the cover is shining beautifully. This is a result of when the cameraman and the water resonated.

Homeopathic coverage

To most orthodox scientists, the "memory of water" is not something that deserves serious consideration; the only evidence is the flawed Benveniste work. By contrast, the notion of "memory of water" is taken seriously among homeopaths. For them, it seems to be part of a possible explanation of why some of their remedies might work, as well as raising interesting questions about the structure of liquids.

An overview of the issues surrounding the memory of water and its relationship to homeopathy was the subject of a special issue of Homeopathy. The articles in this issue propose widely varying mechanisms for water memory, such as: electromagnetic exchange of information between molecules, breaking of temporal symmetry, thermoluminescence, entanglement described by a new quantum theory, formation of hydrogen peroxide, clathrate formation, etc. Some of the proposed mechanisms would require overthrowing much of 20th century physics.