Bahá'í Faith

The Baha'i religion was founded by Baha'u'llah (1817-1892), an Iranian-born leader of Babi exiles in the Ottoman Empire. Members--called Baha'is--recognize Baha'u'llah as the most recent of a series of divine prophets, whose revelation supercedes the provisions of Islam as well as those of earlier religions.

From its roots in the Middle East, the Baha'i religion attracted followers from Western countries in the early 20th century, especially in the wake of a 1912-1913 speaking tour by Baha'u'llah's grandson Abdul-Baha. During the 1960's, heeding the call of 'Abdul-Baha's grandson Shoghi Effendi, Baha'i missionaries spread their religion to various Third World countries. Thus the religion has achieved a noteworthy ethnic diversity as well as geographic spread. Recent estimates of their population have ranged from a little more than a million, to upwards of seven million, with Baha'i sources (and encyclopedias which rely on self-reporting) tending toward the higher number.

Schisms have occurred periodically during the religion's history, resulting in the formation of several splinter groups following different lineages of authority. By far the largest grouping of Baha'is recognizes the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, Israel (est. 1963) as its supreme body. Other groups boast perhaps several hundred followers altogether. Members of rival groups shun one another, with each viewing the other as having "broken the covenant." This article focuses on the main body, the Baha'is associated with Haifa.

A central Baha'i teaching is that of the unity of humanity. That is, Baha'is believe that their revelation heralds the gradual rise of a new global civilization, characterized by peace between all nations. Ultimately, most of the world's people are expected to become Baha'is.

Nomenclature

The word "Baha'i" (/baˈhaːʔiː/)comes from the Arabic word Bahá’ (بهاء), meaning "glory" or "splendor"--a term which forms part of Baha'u'llah's assumed title. Properly the term "Baha'i" is either an adjective referring to the religion, or a noun for a follower of Baha'u'llah, but not a noun for the religion itself (though it is sometimes so employed by those ignorant of Arabic grammar).

Today Baha'is often refer to their religion as the "Baha'i Faith"--i.e. preferring "faith" to "religion," and treating it as part of the religion's name. Names like "Baha'ism", "Bahaism", "Behaism," etc. are sometimes encountered in older material, or in material by dissidents, but are avoided by mainstream Baha'is for complex historical reasons. ("Babism," however, meets with no objection.) "Baha'i religion" is a common academic usage.

Bahá'ís prefer the orthography "Bahá'í"--i.e. with diacritical marks--using a particular transcription of the Arabic and Persian. The marks here depicted as acute accents are more properly written as horizontal lines above the vowels. The meaning of the "apostrophe" is ambiguous in this system, but here stands for the consonant 'ayn, a glottal stop; otherwise Europeans might be tempted to pronounce ai as a dipthong.

When speaking of rival Baha'i groups, smaller bodies sometimes refer to the main group as term "Haifa" Baha'is. The term may elicit some discomfort, as members of the main group insist that they are the only true Baha'is, while others claiming to be Baha'is--but not following the Haifa lineage--stand condemned as "covenant breakers." The smaller groups are listed separately and have various distinguishing appelations.

Sect or Religion?

Baha'is consider theirs to be an "independent world religion" whose relationship to Islam is similar to that of Christianity to Judaism, or of Buddhism to Hinduism. That is to say, while Baha'is recognize Islam as their parent religion, and the source of much of their theology and practice, they categorically reject a Muslim identity for themselves. Much Baha'i literature insists on the religion's equal status with "other" major world religions (size nothwithstanding). Terms such as "sect" are rejected on theological grounds as they tend to reduce the Baha'i religion to a subset of Islam.

This perspective became normative under the leadership of Shoghi Effendi. Previously, Baha'is from Muslim backgrounds would have been assumed to be Muslims, albeit of a special sect; whereas early Western converts often assumed the Baha'is to be an ecumenical group open to members of any religion.

A number of Muslim authorities reject the notion that Baha'is constitute an independent religion. Islamic law recognizes as a Muslim, anyone who accepts Muhammad as a prophet of God (which Baha'is do). Baha'is accept Muhammad as the Seal of the Prophets, but interpret this phrase in such a way as to allow additional prophets (such as Baha'u'llah) after Muhammad. Thus, from a Muslim perspective they resemble the Ahmadiyyah movement, with the crucial difference that Baha'is claim that Islamic law has been superceded.

In answer to criticism that their religion is too small to deserve comparison with Christianity or Islam, Baha'i literature argues that theirs is the "second-most widespread" religion in the world (after Christianity). Their argument assumes the existence of local and national "spiritual assemblies" to be the criterion by which the claim of "significant presence" in a country may be established. (Larger religions usually prefer to focus on the number of countries in which they are the majority, which the Baha'is entirely lack at present.)

Another oft-encountered statement is that the Baha'i religion is the "fastest-growing" world religion, whose current obscurity is comparable to that of say, second-century Christianity. The claim of course refers to percentile growth rather than the number of new believers. Its veracity would depend heavily upon the criteria for inclusion, as tiny religions (which Baha'is avoid listing) find it much easier to achieve rapid percentile growth. Meanwhile, critics challenge the assumption that the Baha'i religion is growing at all.

The Baha'i religion is sometimes treated as a New Religious Movement (NRM), by those who accept 19th-century movements as "new." As such it would be grouped with Mormonism or Theosophy, or (limiting ourselves to groups claiming to be independent religions) to Tenrikyo or Caodaism--and indeed, constitute one of the largest and most established of such groups. No other NRM claiming to be a religion per se, can boast such a widespread and diverse body of believers.

Ex-Baha'is sometimes point to the religion's rigid, controlling nature as evidence that it is a cult in the pejorative sense. In this case a comparison with Utah Mormonism is particularly apt. Both groups are open about their beliefs, boast more than 150 years of tradition, and are now led by institutions as opposed to charismatic leaders. On the other hand, each has expelled dissidents and liberal scholars, and taken various other steps to maintain the authority of their respective leaderships, and the perceived integrity of their spiritual teachings.

History

Baha'is conceive of human history in terms of hazaran ("millennia"), prophetic dispensations of approximately a thousand years each. For example, the dispensation of Muhammad is held to have lasted from the seventh century until AD 1844. We are now living in the "Baha'i Era," the "millennium" of Baha'u'llah which is to last at least a thousand years (until the appearance of the next prophet).

Within this hazar, Baha'is distinguish between a "Heroic Age" of the religion (1844-1892) characterized by the activity of the Bab and Baha'u'llah; an "Apostolic Age" (1892-1921) dominated by Abdul-Baha; and a "Formative Age" (1921-present) of institution-building. The latter is subdivided into (so far) two "epochs" respectively dominated by Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice. A fourth, "Golden Age" of world peace and unity is expected to arise in the future.

Baha'is view their sacred history in terms of "Covenants": on one hand a "Greater Covenant" encompasses previous dispensations, which has existed from time immemorial; and on the other hand a "Lesser Covenant" which binds a major prophet and his followers. The Baha'i religion, they say, is unique in that its founder has not only appointed successors, but also guaranteed that they will never suffer usurpation. Therefore it is said that the Baha'i religion can never dissolve into sects, as have other religions.

For Baha'is, to accept Baha'u'llah while rejecting his chosen successors is one of the most terrible of sins--the sin of "covenant breaking". The question of which claimant qualifies as the genuine successor is therefore a matter of profound spiritual importance for Baha'is, especially in view of the several schisms which have arisen periodically over the religon's history. Indeed, the Baha'i religion emerged as the result of just such a succession crisis.

"The Forerunner," the Bab

The Baha'i calendar begins with AD 1844 as the Year One of the "Baha'i Era" (or 1 B.E.). This year marks not the beginning of the Baha'i religion but of its predecessor movement, called Babism, which flourished in Iran between 1845 and 1852.

As one faction within the Shaykhi school of Iraqi Shi'ism, the Babis recognized a special (but debated) religious station for their leader, the Bab. According to the Baha'i interpretation, the Bab was the next major prophet after Muhammad; and the last before Baha'u'llah. In contrast to other prophetic dispensations, which tend to endure for many centuries, the Babi movement--again according to the Baha'i understanding--barely outlived the execution of its founder, which occurred in 1850. (In fact a remnant of several thousand continues to exist today under the name of Bayani.) The Bab's main purpose, say Baha'is, was to pave the way for the dispensation of Baha'u'llah.

In 1852, vengeful Babis failed in an assassination attempt against Nasser-al-Din Shah Qajar. This led to the expulsion from Iran of surviving Babis, who found themselves exiled to the Ottoman Empire, Russian Transcaspia, or India. Included in the Ottoman exile community was the Bab's chosen successor--known to Baha'is as "Mirza Yahya" and to Bayanis as Subh-i-Azal ("Morning of Eternity")--as well as his younger half-brother Baha'u'llah.

The Founder, Baha'u'llah

By the 1860's, a rift had developed among the Babi exiles in the Ottoman Empire, between the partisans of Subh-i-Azal and Baha'u'llah. While Subh-i-Azal had been named as the Bab's successor, Baha'u'llah claimed to be "Him Whom God Shall Make Manifest" (man yuzhatir'u'llah), a messianic figure predicted by the Bab to appear in the future.

According to the Baha'i interpretation, the authority of a prophet ought to be considered greater than that of the leader of a religion founded by a previous prophet. (The pope, for example, ought to submit to the returned Christ.) Thus, they say, the Babis had a duty to follow Baha'u'llah in place of Subh-i-Azal. Those who did not are remembered as "covenant-breakers," despite the fact that they were never Baha'is to begin with (and followed what Baha'is consider to have been another religion).

Public announcement of Baha'u'llah's claim led to violence between the two factions in 1866, and finally to their enforced separation. The Ottoman government sent the Babis to Famagusta, Cyprus, and the Baha'is to Acre in Palestine. Baha'u'llah spent the remainder of his life in the area of Acre, as a prisoner. From there he received visitors and composed religious writings, which Baha'is regard as infallible.

Baha'u'llah's writings cover the spectrum of traditional Iranian literary subjects and include Sufi maxims (e.g. The Hidden Words), interpretations of scriptural prophecies (notably the Kitab-i-Iqan, the "Book of Certitude"), and legal interpretations (the Kitab-i-Aqdas, discussed below). In addition he apparently contacted various world leaders, inviting them to accept his claims and commands. These are collected under the title Summons to the Lord of Hosts.

"The Master", Abdul-Baha

After Baha'u'llah's death in 1892, his son Abdul-Baha (1844-1921) became his successor. Early Western converts were under the impression that just as Baha'u'llah was God, his son Abdul-Baha must be the Second Coming of Christ. Abdul-Baha, however, disclaimed such a role for himself. Baha'is refer to him as "The Master" and as "The Center of the Covenant," and view him as the faithful servant of his father Baha'u'llah, an ideal model for Baha'is to follow. He is said to be infallible in matters of religious interpretation.

Thanks to the Young Turk Revolution, Abdul-Baha was able to leave Ottoman territory for Europe and America during the years 1912-1913. He spoke on various liberal causes of the day (racial amity, women's suffrage, Esperanto), to various audiences, many consisting of Western spiritual seekers interested in such things as Theosophy or Spiritualism. Kahlil Gibran drew his portrait at this time (and according to one account, considered becoming a Baha'i).

Among Abdul-Baha's writings and recorded speeches, Baha'is would be most familiar with Paris Talks, Tablets of the Divine Plan, The Promulgation of Universal Peace and Some Answered Questions. A photo of Abdul-Baha can often be found in the place of honor in Baha'i homes. (Baha'u'llah's is avoided owing to the suggestion of idolatry.)

"The Guardian," Shoghi Effendi

In his will, Baha'u'llah named his son Abdul-Baha as his immediate successor--but further specified that after Abdul-Baha's death, leadership should pass to another son of Baha'u'llah, Muhammad 'Ali. Instead, Abdul-Baha excommunicated Muhammad 'Ali, and in his own will named as his successor, his (Abdul-Baha's) grandson Shoghi Effendi (1897-1957).

Each side excommunicated and vilified the other, calling on the new British government of Palestine to intervene in their dispute. At stake were not only spiritual honor but also property rights and access to gravesites. Mindful perhaps of Abdul-Baha's wartime support, the British government decided in his favor. Muhammad 'Ali's partisans became known as Unitarian Baha'is, and are apparently no longer extant as a religious identity (their descendents having reverted to Islam).

Baha'is refer to Shoghi Effendi as "the Guardian" of the faith. Oxford-educated, his role was primarily one of translation (Baha'is view his translations, and interpretations of meaning, as divinely inspired) and management (for example, he organized a major wave of Baha'i missionary work).

A dissident faction called the New History Society, centered around Chicago, objected to Shoghi's attempts to control the Baha'i movement, as well as to his characterization of it as a religion. Luminaries such as Albert Einstein and Helen Keller spoke at the society's meetings. Nevertheless, support for it dwindled, leaving Shoghi Effendi triumphant.

Shoghi Effendi's writings include The Advent of Divine Justice, The World Order of Baha'u'llah, and a historical work, God Passes By. He is credited as the translator of The Dawn-Breakers, also called Nabil's Narrative, a history of the Babi movement; critics allege that this understates his active editorial role. (The original Persian ms. has never been released.)

The Hands of the Cause

Shoghi Effendi died without having left a will (which is, ironically, a duty for Baha'is). He had no children. A group of key supporters called the "Hands of the Cause" took charge of the religion, arranging for the 1963 election of the Universal House of Justice. While some Baha'is insisted that this institution was meant to function in tandem with that of the Guardianship, the Hands decided that there would be no future Guardians.

Later one of their number, Charles Mason Remey, decided that Shoghi Effendi had named him (Remey) as the Second Guardian. The result was yet another Baha'i splinter group--and later several more, as the "Remey-ites" disagreed as to who should be the Third Guardian.

The Universal House of Justice

Baha'u'llah's writings allude to one or several "Houses of Justice" which would arise in the future, and have authority over Baha'is (if not others). As interpreted by his successors, and inaugurated by the Hands of the Cause, the Universal House of Justice is a nine-member executive, and the supreme authority of the Baha'i religion throughout the world. Its members are elected every

As an elected council, the House has avoided the succession crises which plagued previous Baha'i regimes. However, the concept of "covenant-breaking" has not been retired, as critics who challenge the House's authority may also find themselves so labelled (and therefore shunned).

Governance

The Baha'i religion lacks a professional clergy (though some of its leaders and functionaries receive salaries), and is governed by a hierarchy of elected councils. These include

• Local Spiritual Assemblies (LSA's)--the most basic level of administration, associated with such localities as towns, cities, or counties. These consist of nine-member councils which are elected annually, from among all local believers. For this reason the community which it represents must be able to muster a quorum of at least nine adult believers.

• National Spiritual Assemblies (NSA's)--similarly-conceived nine-member councils, with national rather than local responsibilities. Like LSA's, NSA's are elected annually, but by delegates chosen by LSA's, rather than directly. NB: Some NSA's represent "nations" which are now defunct, such as Hawaii.

• Regional Baha'i Councils--exist in certain populous countries such as India, as an intermediate level in between the LSA's and NSA.

• The Universal House of Justice (UHJ)--a global body, the religion's highest authority. Its members are elected every five years, by an electoral college consisting of all the members of each NSA. In contrast to other Baha'i bodies, only men are eligible for election to the UHJ. Its "Seat" (headquarters) is located on Mount Carmel, in a campus of neoclassical buildings overlooking the city of Haifa, Israel.

Baha'i elections take place through secret ballot. Elections are decided on the basis of plurality. In the event of a tie, preference is given to members of minority groups within that region. Individual Baha'is are urged to vote for whomever they feel would be best for the role. They may not engage in campaigning, or even announce their candidacy; nor may they discuss whom to vote for with others.

Once elected, the deliberations of Baha'i bodies are also kept secret. Baha'i tradition places great emphasis on consensus--not in the Quaker sense of waiting for agreement, but in the sense that dissenters are encouraged to respect the will of the majority. After a decision is made, all assembly members must support it, regardless of what their earlier position may have been, for the sake of unity.

Critics charge that the system is deeply flawed and fundamentally unfair, notwithstanding its portrayal in Baha'i literature as an improvement over secular democratic models, and allege the following:

• The process favors incumbants in that absent a system of nominations and campaigning, dissatisfied voters will tend to scatter their votes. This is especially visible at the national and international levels, where voters cannot be familiar with many of the potential candidates. (Indeed, since the founding of the UHJ none of its members have ever failed to be re-elected, save through announced retirement.)

• Since the deliberations of such councils are secret--the bodies issue joint statements, never revealing such things as minutes or voting records--voters have little basis on which to evaluate members' records.

• The Baha'i leadership has been able to circumvent the ban on nominating candidates by promoting those whom it favors in Baha'i publications. Conversely, Baha'is not so favored by the administration, who nevertheless gain sufficient prominence to be elected on their own, may be arbitrarily eliminated--either by stripping them of their voting rights (on the pretext they they are "gathering a following", for example), or by expelling them from the faith.

In addition to this hierarchy of councils, there exists a "staff" function--a bureaucracy--which advises the elected bodies. The UHJ appoints nine International Counselors, who direct Continental Counselors, who in turn appoint Auxilliary Boards (for the local and regional level), which appoint Assistants. Critics portray the appointed wing as a mechanism of control, analogous to the Catholic Inquisition.

Beliefs

Baha'i literature often cites lists of core "principles" formulated by Abdul-Baha during his tour of Europe and America. The first three of this list are commonly referred to as the "three onenesses":

The Oneness of God

The Baha'i religion is monotheistic. God's essence is said to be unfathomable. Revelation takes place only by means of his prophets, who have both human and divine aspects. This resembles Shi'i ghulat theories of the imams, as well as the Christian conception of the two natures of Christ. Many Muslims would reject the claim of such teachings to be monotheistic, since they appear to "associate companions" with God.

While God's essence may not be known, his attributes (or "names") may be known. These are likened to gems and include such divine qualities as compassion or wisdom, which human beings are urged to cultivate in their spiritual lives.

Baha'is believe that our spiritual development in the physical world becomes a basis for judgment and advancement in the spiritual world. Heaven and Hell are taught to be spiritual states of nearness or distance from God that describe relationships in this world and the next, and not physical places of reward and punishment achieved after death.

The Oneness of Religion

Baha'is recognize a succession of prophets or "Manifestations" (mazhar). Besides the familiar prophets of the Bible and Islamic tradition--from Adam to Muhammad--Baha'is additionally recognize the divinity of Zarathustra, Krishna, Buddha, the Bab, and Baha'u'llah. The names of many prophets from the distant past are said to be unknown; others are to arrive in the far future, after at least 1000 years have passed from the time of Baha'u'llah. The Baha'i doctrine of progressive revelation holds that each successive prophet reveals a gradually more advanced teaching suitable for his times, thereby guiding human social and spiritual evolution.

Baha'i tradition distinguishes between the spiritual teachings of these prophets, which is said to be identical; and the social and legal provisions, which vary according to time (though apparently not geography). If religions appear to disagree with respect to metaphysics (e.g., Baha'is reject the theory of reincarnation), this is attributed to the corruption of the pristine, "original" teachings of their founders. (Like Islam, the Baha'i religion assumes religions to require founders.) Only the Qur'an, and the Babi and Baha'i scriptures are considered textually reliable records of the prophets.

Because of its acknowledgement of various world religions, the Baha'i religion is often assumed to be an example of syncretism. This is surely an exaggeration. Other than Shi'i Islam, whose influence on Baha'i theology and praxis is overwhelming, some secondary elements can be identified from Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism. This is partly by virtue of the societies in which the Baha'i religon has developed, and partly due to the personal backgrounds of its early converts. Outsiders sometimes also detect the influence of unrecognized religious traditions, such as Theosophy. By contrast, few influences from Hinduism or Buddhism can be identified other than the names of Krishna and Buddha--who however are regarded as prophets sent by God. That Hindus and Buddhists would disagree with this formulation is attributed, again, to the later corruption of those traditions.

Religions whose divinity is not officially recognized include Sikhism and Taoism. Confucianism is regarded as a secular philosophy, Tribal religions are assumed to contain truth, but few specifics are given. Following Islamic tradition, the Baha'i religion accepts Sabeanism as a God-given religion, but is unsure of what to identify as Sabeanism.

Baha'u'llah urged his follows to "consort with the followers of all religions in a spirit of friendliness and fellowship"; and Baha'is have done so actively, taking part in numerous ecumenical gatherings. Belonging to more than one religion is, however, forbidden.

The Oneness of Humanity

Baha'i teaching emphasizes that humans are biologically one race, with racial differences seen as ephemeral or superficial. A common Baha'i expression is that of "unity in diversity," like a garden consisting of numerous species of flowers.

We are also said to be spiritually one, though as yet this often goes unrecognized. In the future the unity of humanity is to have a political dimension as well, with the rise of a world government. This development has been willed by God, and will certainly come about, thanks to the (often unseen) spiritual influences of Baha'u'llah and the Baha'i religion.

An interesting question is the extent to which Baha'i views on the unity of humanity subject to revision by science. For example, supposing that science one day embraces the sociobiological view that race differences are not superficial, or the perspective of game theory that our division into quarrelsome identity groups is inherent part of human nature, would Baha'is accept these conclusions?

The Equality of Men and Women

The Baha'i religion explicitly champions the equality of men and women, making this one of its major principles. While its major figures and recognized prophets have been exclusively male, Baha'i history celebrates a number of prominent women including Tahirih (a Babi heroine, not actually a Baha'i), Navváb (one of Baha'u'llah's wives), Queen Marie of Romania, Bahíyyih Khánum (one of Baha'u'llah's daughters), Martha Root (a prominent Baha'i missionary), and Lidia Zamenhof (daughter of the Esperanto founder).

A number of provisions of the Baha'i religion discriminate on the basis of gender. Women may not serve on the Universal House of Justice, its highest body, and receive less compensation than men in the Baha'i intestate will (an inequality inherited from Muslim family law). On the other hand, in the event that Baha'i parents find themselves unable to afford to educate both sons and daughters, they are instructed to give priority to girls.

The "Elimination of All Forms of Prejudice"

This provision is closely related to the Baha'i teachings on the unity of humanity, and the equality of men and women. Critics point to other "forms of prejudice" which the Baha'i religion has not sought to eliminate. Shoghi Effendi specified that the Baha'i religion is opposed to homosexuality, though Baha'is add that gays and lesbians ought to be treated with politeness and goodwill. Additionally, Baha'i antipathy towards Bayanis (remnant Babis) and the so-called Covenant Breaker groups may qualify as forms of religious prejudice.

Independent Investigation of Truth

The point of this teaching is that spiritual seekers ought not to be satisfied with the religion of their ancestors or upbringing, but should investigate various religions for themselves, ideally becoming convinced of the claims of the Baha'i religion. It is also related to the principle of harmony between science and religion, since a religious teaching contradicted by science is held to be irrational, and therefore unworthy of belief.

Critics point to various Baha'i policies which they say are inconsistent with this principle--among them the warnings against reading "covenant breaker" material, or the requirement to submit writings on the Baha'i religion for pre-publication censorship ("Baha'i Review"). The response is that the "independent investigation of truth" applies to those who have not yet become Baha'is. Once one accepts the stations of Baha'u'llah and his successors, however, the Baha'i acquires a new obligation, namely to accept whatever these have revealed or commanded.

A Universal Auxilliary Language

Baha'u'llah urged that the nations of the world, through representatives, agree on "one universal language and one common script." Baha'is believe that such a council will one day be held. While the choice of language is reserved to this committee, many early Baha'is including 'Abdul Baha favored Esperanto (or a reformed version of it). Baha'u'llah spoke highly of the Arabic language, without recommending it directly; while today English is also frequently mentioned as a candidate.

Practices

As their main scripture--comparable to the Bible for Christians or the Qur'an for Muslims--Baha'is recognize a book known as the Kitab-i-Aqdas, Bahá'u'lláh's book of laws. The Aqdas represents a revision of Babi law, which in turn revises Islamic law (fiqh). In it, Baha'is are commanded to

• Recite an obligatory prayer each day. There are three such prayers, among which one may be chosen.
• Pray and meditate daily.
• Avoid backbiting and gossip.
• Observe a nineteen-day sunrise-to-sunset fast each year from March 2 through March 20. (For adult Baha'is in good health)
• Abstain from alcohol and drugs, unless prescribed by doctors.
• Abstain from all sexual relationships outside of marriage.
• Abstain from gambling.
• Pay a religious tax of huquq'ullah (the "Right of God", analogous to the Islamic zaqat) consisting of nineteen percent of one's wealth.

While some of the laws from the Kitáb-i-Aqdas are applicable at the present time, others have yet to come into effect.

The observance of personal laws such as prayer or fasting, while a universal obligation, is the sole responsibility of the individual. Other laws may be enforced to a degree by the administrative order (such as laws on sexuality), while still others are dependent upon the existence of a predominantly Bahá'í society, which is expected gradually to come into being. For example, the Aqdas specifies that arsonists are to be punished by being burned themselves.

Socially, Baha'is are urged to meet for "feasts" every nineteen days, plus Baha'i holidays (when they are to avoid working if possible). These "feasts" consist of a spiritual portion (scripture reading), business portion (this may include fund-raising, or elections), and social portion. Outsiders are barred from the business portion, but may be permitted to attend the other portions.

Participation in various committees is considered an important aspect of Baha'i spirituality, since their work is seen as a precursor to a future world government.

Places of worship

The night view of a model of the new Bahá'í House of Worship under construction in Chile.

Most Bahá'í meetings occur in individuals' homes, local Bahá'í centers, or rented facilities. Worldwide, there are currently seven Bahá'í Houses of Worship, basically one per continent, with an eighth under construction in Chile. Bahá'í writings refer to an institution called a Mashriqu'l-Adhkár (Dawning-place of the Mention of God), which is to form the center of a complex of institutions including a hospital, university, and so on. Only the first ever Mashriqu'l-Adhkár in 'Ishqábád, Turkmenistan, was built to such a degree.

Symbols

A stylized nine pointed star, with the calligraphy of the Greatest Name in the centre.

The official symbol of the Bahá'í Faith is the five-pointed star, but a nine-pointed star is more frequently used. The ringstone symbol and calligraphy of the Greatest Name are also often encountered. The former consists of two stars interspersed with a stylized Bahá’ (Template:ArB "splendor" or "glory") whose shape is meant to recall the three onenesses. The Greatest Name is Yá Bahá'u'l-'Abhá (Template:ArB "O Glory of the Most Glorious!")

Calendar

The Bahá'í calendar is based upon the calendar established by the Báb. The year consists of 19 months of 19 days, with 4 or 5 intercalary days, to make a full solar year. The Bahá'í New Year corresponds to the traditional Persian New Year, called Naw Rúz, and occurs on the vernal equinox, March 21, at the end of the month of fasting. Bahá'í communities gather at the beginning of each month at a meeting called a Feast for worship, consultation and socializing.

Each of the 19 months is given a name which is an attribute of God; some examples include Bahá’ (Splendour), ‘Ilm (Knowledge), and Jamál (Beauty).The Baha'i week is familiar in that it consists of seven days, with each day of the week also named after an attribute of God; some examples include Istiqlál (Independence), Kamál (Perfection) and ‘Idál (Justice). Bahá'ís observe 11 Holy Days throughout the year, with work suspended on 9 of these. These days commemorate important anniversaries in the history of the Faith.

Persecution

Bahá'ís claim to be persecuted in Muslim countries--especially Iran, where several hundred Baha'is were executed, and various holy sites destroyed, in the wake of the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Several dozen Baha'is are currently imprisoned in Iran, mostly for breaking laws against proselytism.

The most recent Baha'i to have been executed by Iran was Ruhollah Rohani (for proselytizing) in 1998. Another Baha'i,Zabihullah Mahrami, died in 2005 while serving a prison term (for espionage on behalf of Israel). The government of Iran claims that family members, acting on orders from the Baha'i leadership, refused the offer of an autopsy, which it said would reveal the cause of death to have been a heart attack rather than abuse in prison.

Iranian Baha'is have also complained of being being forbidden to attend university in Iran as students there are required to take an exam in one of four recognized religions, and the Baha'is fear that if they take the exam in Islam, this might be used as proof of their Muslim status.

Internal Controversies

In 1980 a British academic, Denis MacEoin, who had recently completed a PhD thesis on Babism, left the movement after fifteen years as a member. He claimed bias and inaccuracy in Baha'i historical texts, and lack of freedom of speech and publication in the Baha'i Faith. He later published several articles, and two books, on Babi and Baha'i history and texts, many of them critical of the standard of scholarship among Baha'is.

With the advent of the internet during the late 1980's and early 1990's, some disputes arose between Baha'is posting online, and Baha'i administrative institions. One issue was that of whether material posted on the internet qualified as a "publication" requiring "Baha'i review" (pre-publication censorship). Another was that of whether Baha'is could be punished, or even expelled, for their personal views.

An internet mailing list, Talisman, came about in the mid-90s as a forum that became highly critical of Bahá'í institutions. In spring of 1996, the House of Justice launched an investigation into six of the most prominent of these posters, including Juan Cole, Professor of History at the University of Michigan. In the course of the investigation, they were warned that if they did not cease promoting their ideas, they would be "in direct conflict with the Covenant." Four of them resigned their membership in the Bahá'í Faith, and Cole, in particular, became an outspoken critic of the Bahá'í administration and of individuals that were involved in the investigation.

Several individuals (such as John and Linda Walbridge, an academic couple) resigned as a result of these conflicts, while others (notably children's author Michael McKenny) were expelled. Of these, some have retained a Baha'i identity as "unenrolled Baha'is." A prominent example, would be New Zealand poet Alison Marshall, expelled in 2000.her webpage.

In 2005 Sen McGlinn was expelled from the faith--ostensibly for introducing himself as a "Baha'i theologian" in his book Church and State: A Postmodern Political Theology. The book's criticism of the Baha'i leadership may also have been a factor in his disenrollment.

In 2006 the U.S. NSA declared a boycott of Kalimat Press, a Baha'i-oriented academic publisher run by Anthony Lee. Its objection was that Kalimat had published certain books (all of which, ironically, had passed Baha'i censorship) inimicable to the faith--including the aforementioned Church and State. The boycott quickly spread to other countries as well.

Splinter Groups

• In Germany, Hermann Zimmer resurrected the claims of Ruth White in a small book published in 1971 (English translation in 1973), A Fraudulent Testament devalues the Bahá'í Religion into Political Shogism. Zimmer had been planning to form an Association of Free Bahá'ís (or the World Union of Universal Religion and Universal Peace), but this apparently never come into being. Charles Seeburger set up a similar group in Philadelphia in about 1967, but this is apparently defunct.

• The Orthodox Bahá'í Faith - a smaller group which followed Mason Remey's claim to succeed Shoghi Effendi, and currently follows Joel Marangella as the third Guardian. This group contests the legitimacy of the Universal House of Justice.

• Bahá'ís Under the Provisions of the Covenant - established by Leland Jensen, one of the followers of Mason Remey, who believed that Pepe Remey was the third Guardian. Apart from issues of leadership, this group differs from the majority of Bahá'ís in many areas of belief, most notably in its focus on and interpretation of Christian prophecy.

External links

• The Bahá'ís, the official presence of the Bahá'í International Community on the Web.
• BBC Religion and Ethics special: Bahá'í, BBC on the Bahá'í Faith.
• Baha'i Library collection of Baha'i writings on the net with an excellent forum.