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|elementColor=ffe303
|elName=Phosphorus
|elName=Phosphorus
|elMass=30.97
|elMass=30.973 761
|elSym=P
|elSym=P
|elNum=15
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Phosphorus is a chemical element, with atomic number Z = 15, that is present in all living organisms   
'''Phosphorus''' is a chemical [[element]], with [[atomic number]] Z = 15, that is present in all living organisms   
in the form of organophosphates and as calcium phosphates such as [[hydroxyapetite]] (Ca<sub>10</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>6</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>) and [[fluoroapatite]] (Ca<sub>10</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>6</sub>F<sub>2</sub>) found in teeth and bones.  Many cell signaling cascades in living organisms operate by a series of phosphorylation events in which a phosphate group (PO<sub>4</sub>)<sup>2-</sup> is either added to a protein by a [[kinase]] or removed from a protein by a [[phosphorylase]].  Unlike other elements in group VA, phosphorus is never found as a pure element in nature, but only in combination with other elements.  Both [[red phosphorus]] and [[tetraphosphorus trisulfide]] are used in common matches because they are easily ignited by heat.  However, the agricultural industry is the largest user of phosphorus in the form of fertilizers.  The radioactive isotope <sup>32</sup>P is used to radiolabel compounds for scientific studies.  Phosphorus and arsenic share many chemical properties.
in the form of organophosphates and as calcium phosphates such as [[hydroxyapetite]] (Ca<sub>10</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>6</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>) and [[fluoroapatite]] (Ca<sub>10</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>6</sub>F<sub>2</sub>) found in teeth and bones.  Many cell signaling cascades in living organisms operate by a series of phosphorylation events in which a phosphate group (PO<sub>4</sub>)<sup>2&minus;</sup> is either added to a protein by a [[kinase]] or removed from a protein by a [[phosphorylase]].   


== production of elemental phosphorus ==
Unlike other elements in group VA of the [[periodic table]], phosphorus is never found as a pure element in nature, but only in combination with other elements.  Both [[red phosphorus]] and [[tetraphosphorus trisulfide]] are used in common matches because they are easily ignited by heat.  However, the agricultural industry is the largest user of phosphorus in the form of fertilizers.  The radioactive isotope <sup>32</sup>P is used to radiolabel compounds for scientific studies.  Phosphorus and arsenic share many chemical properties.


Calcium phosphate (phosphate rock), mostly mined in Florida and North Africa, can be heated to 1200-1500 Celcius with sand, which is mostly SiO<sub>2</sub>, and coke (impure carbon) to produce vaporized tetraphosphorus, P<sub>4</sub>, (mp. 44.2 C) which is subsequently condenced into a white power under water to prevent oxidation.  Even under water, [[white phosphorus]] is slowly converted to the more stable red phosphorus [[allotrope]] (mp. 597C).  Both the white and red allotropes of phosphoruus are insoluble in water.
== Production of elemental phosphorus ==
Calcium phosphate (phosphate rock), mostly mined in Florida and North Africa, can be heated to 1200-1500 Celcius with sand, which is mostly SiO<sub>2</sub>, and coke (impure carbon) to produce vaporized tetraphosphorus, P<sub>4</sub>, (mp. 44.2 C) which is subsequently condensed into a white power under water to prevent oxidation.  Even under water, [[white phosphorus]] is slowly converted to the more stable red phosphorus [[allotrope]] (mp. 597C).  Both the white and red allotropes of phosphoruus are insoluble in water.


== fertilizers ==
== Fertilizers ==
Due to the essential nature of phosphorus to living organisms, the low solubility of natural phosphorus-containing compounds,  and the slow natural cycle of phosphorous, the agricultural industry is heavily reliant on fertilizes which contain phosphate, mostly in the form of [[superphosphate of lime]].  Superphosphate of lime is a mixture of two phosphate salts, calcium dihyrogen phosphate (Ca(H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>) and calcium sulfate dihydrate CaSO<sub>4</sub>•2H<sub>2</sub>O produced by the reaction of sulfuric acid and water with calcium phosphate.
Due to the essential nature of phosphorus to living organisms, the low solubility of natural phosphorus-containing compounds,  and the slow natural cycle of phosphorous, the agricultural industry is heavily reliant on fertilizers which contain phosphate, mostly in the form of [[superphosphate of lime]].  Superphosphate of lime is a mixture of two phosphate salts, calcium dihyrogen phosphate (Ca(H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>) and calcium sulfate dihydrate CaSO<sub>4</sub>•2H<sub>2</sub>O produced by the reaction of sulfuric acid and water with calcium phosphate.


== allotropes of phosphorus  ==
== Allotropes of phosphorus  ==
[[Image:Phosphorus P4 atomic structure.jpg|right|thumb|200px|{{#ifexist:Template:Phosphorus P4 atomic structure.jpg/credit|{{Phosphorus P4 atomic structure.jpg/credit}}<br/>|}}Structure of white phosphorus.]]  
[[Image:Phosphorus P4 atomic structure.jpg|right|thumb|200px|{{#ifexist:Template:Phosphorus P4 atomic structure.jpg/credit|{{Phosphorus P4 atomic structure.jpg/credit}}<br/>|}}Structure of white phosphorus.]]  
Both phosphorus and arsenic have many allotropes, but only two forms predominate.  White phosphorus and yellow arsenic both have four atoms arranged in a tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to the other three atoms by a single bond.  This form of the elements are the least stable, most reactive, more volatile, less dense, and more toxic than the other allotropes.  The toxicity of white phosphorus lead to its discontinued use in matches.  In red phosphorus, one of the bonds in P<sub>4</sub> described above has been broken, and one additional bond is formed with a neighboring tetrahedron. Black phosphorus is made of even larger aggragates.  P<sub>2</sub>, which contains a triple bond and is analogous to N<sub>2</sub>, is stable only at high temperatures.
Both phosphorus and arsenic have many [[allotrope]]s, but only the white and red forms predominate.   
*White phosphorus and yellow arsenic both have four atoms arranged in a tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to the other three atoms by a single bond.  This form of the elements are the least stable, most reactive, more volatile, less dense, and more toxic than the other allotropes.  The toxicity of white phosphorus lead to its discontinued use in matches.   
*Red phosphorus: here one of the bonds in P<sub>4</sub> described above has been broken, and one additional bond is formed with a neighboring tetrahedron.  
*Black phosphorus is made of even larger aggregates.  P<sub>2</sub>, which contains a triple bond and is analogous to N<sub>2</sub>, is stable only at high temperatures.


== phosphine, diphosphine and phosphonium salts ==
== Phosphine, diphosphine and phosphonium salts ==
Phosphine (PH<sub>3</sub>) and arsine (AsH<sub>3</sub>) are structural analogs with ammomia (NH<sub>3</sub>) and form pyramidal structures with the phosphorus or arsenic atom in the center bound to three hydrogen atoms and one lone electron pair.  Both are colorless, ill-smelling, toxic compounds.  Phosphine is produced in a manner similar to the production of ammonia.  Hydrolysis of calcium phosphide, Ca<sub>3</sub>P<sub>2</sub>, or calcium nitride, Ca<sub>3</sub>N<sub>2</sub> produce phosphine or ammonia, respectively.  Unlike ammonia, phosphine in unstable and it reacts instantly with air giving off phosphoric acid clouds.  Arsenic is even less stable.  Although phosphine is less basic than ammonia, it can form a few some phosphonium salts (PH<sub>4</sub>I), analogs of ammonium salts, but these salts immediately decompose in water and do not yield PH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> ions.  Diphosphine (P<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub> or H<sub>2</sub>P-PH<sub>2</sub>) is an analog of [[hydrazine]] (N2H4) that is a colorless liquid which spontaneously ignites in air and can disproportionate into phosphine and complex hydrides.
Phosphine (PH<sub>3</sub>) and arsine (AsH<sub>3</sub>) are structural analogs with ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>) and form pyramidal structures with the phosphorus or arsenic atom in the center bound to three hydrogen atoms and one lone electron pair.  Both are colorless, ill-smelling, toxic compounds.  Phosphine is produced in a manner similar to the production of ammonia.  Hydrolysis of calcium phosphide, Ca<sub>3</sub>P<sub>2</sub>, or calcium nitride, Ca<sub>3</sub>N<sub>2</sub> produce phosphine or ammonia, respectively.  Unlike ammonia, phosphine is unstable and it reacts instantly with air giving off phosphoric acid clouds.  Arsenic is even less stable.  Although phosphine is less basic than ammonia, it can form a few some phosphonium salts (PH<sub>4</sub>I), analogs of ammonium salts, but these salts immediately decompose in water and do not yield PH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> ions.  Diphosphine (P<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub> or H<sub>2</sub>P-PH<sub>2</sub>) is an analog of [[hydrazine]] (N2H4) that is a colorless liquid which spontaneously ignites in air and can disproportionate into phosphine and complex hydrides.


== phosphorus halides ==
== Phosphorus halides ==
The trihalides PF<sub>3</sub>, PCl<sub>3</sub>, PBr<sub>3</sub> and PI<sub>3</sub> and the pentahalides PF<sub>5</sub>, PCl<sub>5</sub> and PBr<sub>5</sub> are all known and mixed halides can also be formed.  The trihalides can be formed simply by mixing the appropriate stoichiometric amounts of phosphorus and a halide.
The trihalides PF<sub>3</sub>, PCl<sub>3</sub>, PBr<sub>3</sub> and PI<sub>3</sub> and the pentahalides PF<sub>5</sub>, PCl<sub>5</sub> and PBr<sub>5</sub> are all known and mixed halides can also be formed.  The trihalides can be formed simply by mixing the appropriate stoichiometric amounts of phosphorus and a halide.
For safety reasons, however, PF3 is typically made by reacting PCl<sub>3</sub> with AsF<sub>5</sub> and fractional distillation because the direct reaction of phosphorus with fluorine can be explosive.  The pentahalides, PX<sub>5</sub>, are synthesized by reacting excess halide with either elemental phosphorus or with the corresponding trihalide.  Mixed phosphorus halides are unstable and decompose to form simple halides.  Thus 5PF<sub>3</sub>Br<sub>2</sub> decomposes into 3PF<sub>5</sub> and 2PBr<sub>5</sub>.
For safety reasons, however, PF<sub>3</sub> is typically made by reacting PCl<sub>3</sub> with AsF<sub>5</sub> and fractional distillation because the direct reaction of phosphorus with fluorine can be explosive.  The pentahalides, PX<sub>5</sub>, are synthesized by reacting excess halide with either elemental phosphorus or with the corresponding trihalide.  Mixed phosphorus halides are unstable and decompose to form simple halides.  Thus 5PF<sub>3</sub>Br<sub>2</sub> decomposes into 3PF<sub>5</sub> and 2PBr<sub>5</sub>.


== phosphorus oxides (acid anhydrides) ==
== Phosphorus oxides (acid anhydrides) ==
Phosphorus(III)oxide, P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> (also called tetraphosphorus hexoxide) and phosphorus(IV) oxide, P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub> (or tetraphosphorus decoxide) are acid anhydrides of phosphorus oxyacids and hence readily react with water.  P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub> is a particularly good dehydrating agent that can even remove water from nitric acid, HNO<sub>3</sub>.  The structure of P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> is like that of P<sub>4</sub> with an oxygen atom inserted between each of the P-P bonds.  The structure of P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub> is like that of P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> with the addition of one oxygen bond to each phosphorus atom via a double bond and protruding away from the tetrahedral structure.
Phosphorus(III)oxide, P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> (also called tetraphosphorus hexoxide) and phosphorus(IV) oxide, P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub> (or tetraphosphorus decoxide) are acid anhydrides of phosphorus oxyacids and hence readily react with water.  P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub> is a particularly good dehydrating agent that can even remove water from nitric acid, HNO<sub>3</sub>.  The structure of P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> is like that of P<sub>4</sub> with an oxygen atom inserted between each of the P-P bonds.  The structure of P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>10</sub> is like that of P<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub> with the addition of one oxygen bond to each phosphorus atom via a double bond and protruding away from the tetrahedral structure.


== phosphorus oxyacids ==
== Phosphorus oxyacids ==
Phosphorous oxyacids can have acidic protons bound to oyxgen atoms and nonacidic protons which are bonded directly to the phosphorus atom.  Although many oxyacids of phosphorus are formed, only six are important (see table), and three of them, hypophosphorous acid, phosphorous acid and phosphoric acid are particularly important ones.
Phosphorous oxyacids can have acidic protons bound to oxygen atoms and nonacidic protons which are bonded directly to the phosphorus atom.  Although many oxyacids of phosphorus are formed, only six are important (see table), and three of them, hypophosphorous acid, phosphorous acid and phosphoric acid are particularly important ones.




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</table>
</table>


==widely used phosphorous compounds==
==Widely used phosphorous compounds==
 
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#FFFFFF">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" bordercolor="#CCCCCC" bgcolor="#FFFFFF">
<tr><th>Phosphorous compound</th><th>Use</th></tr>
<tr><th>Phosphorous compound</th><th>Use</th></tr>
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</table>
</table>


== isotopes of phosphorus ==
== Isotopes of phosphorus ==
Although twenty three isotopes of phosphorus are known (all posibilities from <sup>24</sup>P up to <sup>46</sup>P), only <sup>31</sup>P, with spin 1/2, is stable and is therefore present at 100% abundance. The half-integer spin and high abundance of <sup>31</sup>P make it useful for nuclear magnetic resonance studies of biomolecules, particularly DNA. 


Although twenty three isotopes of phosphorus are known (all posibilities from <sup>24</sup>P up to <sup>46</sup>P), only <sup>31</sup>P, with spin +1/2, is stable and is therefore present at 100% abundance. The half-integer spin and high abundance of <sup>31</sup>P make it useful for nuclear magnetic resonance studies of biomolecules, particularly DNA.  Two radioactive isotopes of phosphorous have half-lives which make them useful for scientific experiments.  <sup>32</sup>P has a half-life of 14.262 days and <sup>33</sup>P has a half-life of 25.34 days.  Biomolecules can be "tagged" with a radio isotope to allowed for the study of very dilute samples.
Two radioactive isotopes of phosphorous have half-lives which make them useful for scientific experiments.  <sup>32</sup>P has a half-life of 14.262 days and <sup>33</sup>P has a half-life of 25.34 days.  Biomolecules can be "tagged" with a radio isotope to allowed for the study of very dilute samples.




== biological membranes and [[phospholipid|phospholipids]] ==
== Biological membranes and [[phospholipid|phospholipids]] ==
[[Image:Phospholipid DEVolk.jpg|right|thumb|350px|{{#ifexist:Template:Phospholipid DEVolk.jpg/credit|{{Phospholipid DEVolk.jpg/credit}}<br/>|}}Structure of a generic saturated phospholipid. Often n=10,12,14,16,18 and 22.]]  
[[Image:Phospholipid DEVolk.jpg|right|thumb|350px|{{#ifexist:Template:Phospholipid DEVolk.jpg/credit|{{Phospholipid DEVolk.jpg/credit}}<br/>|}}Structure of a generic saturated phospholipid. Often n=10,12,14,16,18 and 22.]]  
All cells must have a membrane that distinguishes it from the cell's surrounding.  Biological membranes are made from a phospholipid matrix and proteins, typically in the form of a bilayer.  Phospholipids are derived from [[glycerol]], such that two of the glycerol hydroxyl (OH) protons have been replaced with fatty acids as an [[ester]], and the third hydroxyl proton has been replaced with phosphate bonded to another alcohol.
All cells must have a membrane that distinguishes it from the cell's surrounding.  Biological membranes are made from a phospholipid matrix and proteins, typically in the form of a bilayer.  Phospholipids are derived from [[glycerol]], such that two of the glycerol hydroxyl (OH) protons have been replaced with fatty acids as an [[ester]], and the third hydroxyl proton has been replaced with phosphate bonded to another alcohol.

Revision as of 03:48, 21 December 2007

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Phosphorus
30.973761(2) +3
+5
0
-3
  P
15
1s22s22p63s23p3
[ ? ] Non-Metal:
Properties:
allotropic
Compounds:
Oxides, oxyacids, halides
Uses:
Vital to life; drying agents; strong acids;fertilizers
Hazard:
flammable, toxic


Phosphorus is a chemical element, with atomic number Z = 15, that is present in all living organisms in the form of organophosphates and as calcium phosphates such as hydroxyapetite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) and fluoroapatite (Ca10(PO4)6F2) found in teeth and bones. Many cell signaling cascades in living organisms operate by a series of phosphorylation events in which a phosphate group (PO4)2− is either added to a protein by a kinase or removed from a protein by a phosphorylase.

Unlike other elements in group VA of the periodic table, phosphorus is never found as a pure element in nature, but only in combination with other elements. Both red phosphorus and tetraphosphorus trisulfide are used in common matches because they are easily ignited by heat. However, the agricultural industry is the largest user of phosphorus in the form of fertilizers. The radioactive isotope 32P is used to radiolabel compounds for scientific studies. Phosphorus and arsenic share many chemical properties.

Production of elemental phosphorus

Calcium phosphate (phosphate rock), mostly mined in Florida and North Africa, can be heated to 1200-1500 Celcius with sand, which is mostly SiO2, and coke (impure carbon) to produce vaporized tetraphosphorus, P4, (mp. 44.2 C) which is subsequently condensed into a white power under water to prevent oxidation. Even under water, white phosphorus is slowly converted to the more stable red phosphorus allotrope (mp. 597C). Both the white and red allotropes of phosphoruus are insoluble in water.

Fertilizers

Due to the essential nature of phosphorus to living organisms, the low solubility of natural phosphorus-containing compounds, and the slow natural cycle of phosphorous, the agricultural industry is heavily reliant on fertilizers which contain phosphate, mostly in the form of superphosphate of lime. Superphosphate of lime is a mixture of two phosphate salts, calcium dihyrogen phosphate (Ca(H2PO4)2) and calcium sulfate dihydrate CaSO4•2H2O produced by the reaction of sulfuric acid and water with calcium phosphate.

Allotropes of phosphorus

(CC) Image: David E. Volk
Structure of white phosphorus.

Both phosphorus and arsenic have many allotropes, but only the white and red forms predominate.

  • White phosphorus and yellow arsenic both have four atoms arranged in a tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to the other three atoms by a single bond. This form of the elements are the least stable, most reactive, more volatile, less dense, and more toxic than the other allotropes. The toxicity of white phosphorus lead to its discontinued use in matches.
  • Red phosphorus: here one of the bonds in P4 described above has been broken, and one additional bond is formed with a neighboring tetrahedron.
  • Black phosphorus is made of even larger aggregates. P2, which contains a triple bond and is analogous to N2, is stable only at high temperatures.

Phosphine, diphosphine and phosphonium salts

Phosphine (PH3) and arsine (AsH3) are structural analogs with ammonia (NH3) and form pyramidal structures with the phosphorus or arsenic atom in the center bound to three hydrogen atoms and one lone electron pair. Both are colorless, ill-smelling, toxic compounds. Phosphine is produced in a manner similar to the production of ammonia. Hydrolysis of calcium phosphide, Ca3P2, or calcium nitride, Ca3N2 produce phosphine or ammonia, respectively. Unlike ammonia, phosphine is unstable and it reacts instantly with air giving off phosphoric acid clouds. Arsenic is even less stable. Although phosphine is less basic than ammonia, it can form a few some phosphonium salts (PH4I), analogs of ammonium salts, but these salts immediately decompose in water and do not yield PH4+ ions. Diphosphine (P2H4 or H2P-PH2) is an analog of hydrazine (N2H4) that is a colorless liquid which spontaneously ignites in air and can disproportionate into phosphine and complex hydrides.

Phosphorus halides

The trihalides PF3, PCl3, PBr3 and PI3 and the pentahalides PF5, PCl5 and PBr5 are all known and mixed halides can also be formed. The trihalides can be formed simply by mixing the appropriate stoichiometric amounts of phosphorus and a halide. For safety reasons, however, PF3 is typically made by reacting PCl3 with AsF5 and fractional distillation because the direct reaction of phosphorus with fluorine can be explosive. The pentahalides, PX5, are synthesized by reacting excess halide with either elemental phosphorus or with the corresponding trihalide. Mixed phosphorus halides are unstable and decompose to form simple halides. Thus 5PF3Br2 decomposes into 3PF5 and 2PBr5.

Phosphorus oxides (acid anhydrides)

Phosphorus(III)oxide, P4O6 (also called tetraphosphorus hexoxide) and phosphorus(IV) oxide, P4O10 (or tetraphosphorus decoxide) are acid anhydrides of phosphorus oxyacids and hence readily react with water. P4O10 is a particularly good dehydrating agent that can even remove water from nitric acid, HNO3. The structure of P4O6 is like that of P4 with an oxygen atom inserted between each of the P-P bonds. The structure of P4O10 is like that of P4O6 with the addition of one oxygen bond to each phosphorus atom via a double bond and protruding away from the tetrahedral structure.

Phosphorus oxyacids

Phosphorous oxyacids can have acidic protons bound to oxygen atoms and nonacidic protons which are bonded directly to the phosphorus atom. Although many oxyacids of phosphorus are formed, only six are important (see table), and three of them, hypophosphorous acid, phosphorous acid and phosphoric acid are particularly important ones.


Oxidation StateFormulaNameAcidic ProtonsCompounds
+1 H3PO2 hypophosphorous acid 1 acid, salts
+3 H3PO3 (ortho)phosphorous acid 2 acid, salts
+5 (HPO3)n metaphosphoric acids n salts (n=3,4)
+5 H5P3O10 triphosphoric acid 3 salts
+5 H4P2O7 pyrophosphoric acid 4 acid, salts
+5 H3PO4 phosphoric acid 3 acid, salts

Widely used phosphorous compounds

Phosphorous compoundUse
Ca(H2PO4)2•H2OBaking powder & fertilizers
CaHPO4•2H2OAnimal food additive, toothpowder
H3PO4Manufacture of phosphate fertilizers
PCl3Manufacture of POCl3 and pesticides
POCl3plasticizer Manufacturing
P4S10Manufacturing of additives and pesticides
Na5P3O10Detergents

Isotopes of phosphorus

Although twenty three isotopes of phosphorus are known (all posibilities from 24P up to 46P), only 31P, with spin 1/2, is stable and is therefore present at 100% abundance. The half-integer spin and high abundance of 31P make it useful for nuclear magnetic resonance studies of biomolecules, particularly DNA.

Two radioactive isotopes of phosphorous have half-lives which make them useful for scientific experiments. 32P has a half-life of 14.262 days and 33P has a half-life of 25.34 days. Biomolecules can be "tagged" with a radio isotope to allowed for the study of very dilute samples.


Biological membranes and phospholipids

(CC) Image: David E. Volk
Structure of a generic saturated phospholipid. Often n=10,12,14,16,18 and 22.

All cells must have a membrane that distinguishes it from the cell's surrounding. Biological membranes are made from a phospholipid matrix and proteins, typically in the form of a bilayer. Phospholipids are derived from glycerol, such that two of the glycerol hydroxyl (OH) protons have been replaced with fatty acids as an ester, and the third hydroxyl proton has been replaced with phosphate bonded to another alcohol.