Robert E. Lee: Difference between revisions
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'''Robert E. Lee''' (1807-1870) was an American soldier who became the outstanding general of the Confederate army in the [[American Civil War]]. He had a successful but unremarkable career in the U.S. army. One year into the Civil War he took command of the main Confederate combat army, the Army of Northern Virginia. Lee immediately emerged as the swiftest and shrewdest | '''Robert E. Lee''' (1807-1870) was an American soldier who became the outstanding general of the Confederate army in the [[American Civil War]]. He had a successful but unremarkable career in the U.S. army. One year into the Civil War he took command of the main Confederate combat army, the Army of Northern Virginia. Lee immediately emerged as the swiftest and shrewdest battlefield tactician of the war, as typified by many victories such as at Fredericksburg (1862), Chancellorsville (1863) and Cold Harbor (1864). His strategic vision was more dubious--his invasions of the North in 1862 and 1863 were based on the false assumption that Northern morale was weak and could be shattered by rebel victories. They produced disastrous defeats at [[Antietam]] (1862) and [[Gettysburg]] (1863), while his failure to protect Vicksburg in 1863 cost the Confederacy control of its western regions. Nevertheless Lee's brilliant defensive maneuvers stopped the Union offenses one after another, as a series of Union commanders failed to win a single major battle in Virginia. | ||
Lee believed in the Napoleonic doctrine of decisive battle--he aimed to destroy entire Union armies and thereby undercut the Yankee will to resist Confederate independence. He won many battles but never destroyed or captured a Union army. In any case the Union will to win was greater than the the Confederate, a differential that grew wider year by year. With his supplies of munition and manpower adequate for a short war of a year or two, Lee had to fight a long war of attrition where the odds overwhelmingly favored the North. | Lee believed in the Napoleonic doctrine of decisive battle--he aimed to destroy entire Union armies and thereby undercut the Yankee will to resist Confederate independence. He won many battles but never destroyed or captured a Union army. In any case the Union will to win was greater than the the Confederate, a differential that grew wider year by year. With his supplies of munition and manpower adequate for a short war of a year or two, Lee had to fight a long war of attrition where the odds overwhelmingly favored the North. | ||
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He was commissioned major general in the Virginia state forces, and was one of the five general officers commissioned in 1861 by the Southern Confederacy. In the fall of 1861 he was assigned to command in the mountains in western Virginia (now West Virginia), but failed to overcome the chaos of Confederate supporters and the superior organization of Union armies. He misunderstood the politics of the region (which was intensely hostile to plantation owners like himself), lacked men and materials, and poorly coordinated his jealous subordinate commanders. He returned to Richmond, the Confederate capital, in October 1861, but was soon given command the southeast coast of the Confederacy; politicians distrusted him. Nevertheless President [[Jefferson Davis]] had full confidence in Lee and his ability, making Lee his chief military adviser, based in Richmond. General | He was commissioned major general in the Virginia state forces, and was one of the five general officers commissioned in 1861 by the Southern Confederacy. In the fall of 1861 he was assigned to command in the mountains in western Virginia (now West Virginia), but failed to overcome the chaos of Confederate supporters and the superior organization of Union armies. He misunderstood the politics of the region (which was intensely hostile to plantation owners like himself), lacked men and materials, and poorly coordinated his jealous subordinate commanders. He returned to Richmond, the Confederate capital, in October 1861, but was soon given command the southeast coast of the Confederacy; politicians distrusted him. Nevertheless President [[Jefferson Davis]] had full confidence in Lee and his ability, making Lee his chief military adviser, based in Richmond. General | ||
==Civil War: 1862== | ==Civil War: 1862== | ||
[[George B. McClellan]], heading a large and well-equipped invasion force, was approaching Richmond in late May 1862. When the Confederate commander General Joseph E. Johnston was severely wounded, Lee was given the command. For the next three years he defended Richmond, as the survival of the Southern cause rested largely on his judgment, skill, and ability. Within a month Lee stopped McClellan and bottled him up on the Yorktown peninsula southeast of Richmond. | [[George B. McClellan]], heading a large and well-equipped invasion force, was approaching Richmond in late May 1862. When the Confederate commander General Joseph E. Johnston was severely wounded, Lee was given the command. For the next three years he defended Richmond, as the survival of the Southern cause rested largely on his judgment, skill, and ability. Within a month Lee stopped McClellan and bottled him up on the Yorktown peninsula southeast of Richmond. | ||
After a rest of a month or so to reorganize, equip, and reinforce his army, Lee led it northward toward Washington, expecting that McClellan would withdraw his forces from Yorktown to reinforce Washington. By the last week in August, Lee encountered General John Pope some 25 miles south of Washington. Lee won the "second battle of Bull Run." Washington was too heavily defended so Lee decided on a raid into Maryland to plunder supplies and to encourage recruiting for his army. Lee's forces were divided three ways, with [[Stonewall Jackson]] successfully capturing the Union arsenal at Harper's Ferry. Lee's secret plans accidentally fell into McClellan's hands. Usually McClellan was highly reluctant to attack, primarily because his overestimated Lee's strength by a factor of two. This time he knew Lee's forces were divided, but he wasted time while Lee, hearing news of the lost plans, frantically concentrated his forces. | After a rest of a month or so to reorganize, equip, and reinforce his army, Lee led it northward toward Washington, expecting that McClellan would withdraw his forces from Yorktown to reinforce Washington. By the last week in August, Lee encountered General John Pope some 25 miles south of Washington. Lee won the "second battle of Bull Run." Washington was too heavily defended so Lee decided on a raid into Maryland to plunder supplies and to encourage recruiting for his army. Lee's forces were divided three ways, with [[Stonewall Jackson]] successfully capturing the Union arsenal at Harper's Ferry. Lee's secret plans accidentally fell into McClellan's hands. Usually McClellan was highly reluctant to attack, primarily because his overestimated Lee's strength by a factor of two. This time he knew Lee's forces were divided, but he wasted time while Lee, hearing news of the lost plans, frantically concentrated his forces<ref>One of Lee's couriers accidentally dropped the plans, wrapped around some cigars. An Indiana soldier found them and his colonel took them to McClellan, who exclaimed before a local delegation that he had Lee trapped. One visitor slipped away and reached Lee by midnight. McClellan had decided to sleep on his secret and did not issue orders until the morning.</ref>. September 17, 1862 saw the bloodiest single day of the war at the battle of Sharpsburg (or Antietam<ref> Confederates named battles after the nearest town, Sharpsburg, while the Union named them after the nearest river, Antietam.</ref>.) Jackson's reinforcements arrived just in time to make the battle was a standoff, but Lee had to retreat to Virginia. On Dec. 13, 1862, the Union army, now commanded by General [[Ambrose E. Burnside]], crossed the Rappahannock River river from Fredericksburg in an attempt to defeat and destroy Lee's army, but the attacks were thrown back with heavy losses, and no further hostilities occurred during the winter. | ||
==Civil War: 1863== | ==Civil War: 1863== | ||
In late April 1863, the Union army, this time commanded by General [[Joseph Hooker]], faced Lee along the line of the Rappahannock. at the battle of Chancellorsville, May 6, 1863, by brilliant maneuvering and skillful direction of his smaller army, Lee won a classic victory. His best subordinate, General [["Stonewall" Jackson]], was killed, a major loss for Lee. | |||
Although [[Ulysses Grant]] was closing in on uncoordinated Confederate armies in the Vicksburg campaign, Lee ignored this strategic threat. Instead he turned to Northern politics for a miracle cure. Lee had never been interested in politics and misunderstood what was happening by relying on [[Copperhead]] papers that gloomily proclaimed the Union effort was doomed. To help that doom come faster Lee decided on an invasion of Pennsylvania. The raid promised large stories of desperately needed supplies, and Lee expected it would shock the Yankees into realization that the Confederacy had a superior moral fiber and commitment to win. A psychological victory would quickly end the war. Lee was dreaming--and he seems not to have consulted any Confederate politicians (or Yankee prisoners) who could have explained politics to him. Lee's movement started on the first of June and within a short time was well on its way through Maryland, with General [[George Meade]], the new Union commander, moving north along parallel lines. Lee's cavalry, under General [[Jeb Stuart]] had the primary mission of gathering intelligence on where the enemy was position, but Stuart failed and instead raided some supply trains. He did not rejoin Lee until the battle was underway. Lee's armies threatened Harrisburg, Washington, Baltimore and even Philadelphia. Local militia units hurriedly formed to oppose Lee, but they were inconsequential in the face of a large, battle-hardened attack force. Gettysburg was a crossroads junction in heavily wooded areas. Over three days, July 1-3, Confederate forces arrived piecemeal from the northwest, while Union forces arrived piecemeal from the east. By July 1 Meade was to the south of Lee--Lee's retreat was cut off and he had to fight, and had to win. On July 1, 1863, the fighting began, with a Confederate advantage in manpower. The Union forces fell back on a fishhook position on hills to the southeast of town. see [[Gettysburg Campaign]] The bloody combat in very hot July weather climaxed in the spectacular but fruitless charge of General [[George E. Pickett]]'s brigades into a trap set by Union forces atop Cemetery Ridge. Pickett failed, and lee was out of reserves (and out of artillery ammunition). After this decisive defeat, Lee was trapped, but Meade failed badly in not pursuing. Lee's escape was one of his greatest achievements. By the end of July Lee's depleted army was back in its camps around Orange Court House, Virginia. There was little important action the rest of the year. | |||
The only bright spot was the Confederates systematically looted Pennsylvania and in retreat brought back enough captured food, wagons, hardware, horses and cattle to keep Lee supplied for months to come.<ref> They also captured some free blacks and made them slaves.</ref> The looting indeed was part of Lee's plan, but the 28,000 casualties permanently weakened his army, leaving it no chance to take the initiative in the future. | The only bright spot was the Confederates systematically looted Pennsylvania and in retreat brought back enough captured food, wagons, hardware, horses and cattle to keep Lee supplied for months to come.<ref> They also captured some free blacks and made them slaves.</ref> The looting indeed was part of Lee's plan, but the 28,000 casualties permanently weakened his army, leaving it no chance to take the initiative in the future. | ||
==Civil War: 1864== | ==Civil War: 1864== | ||
Revision as of 20:17, 19 November 2007
Robert E. Lee (1807-1870) was an American soldier who became the outstanding general of the Confederate army in the American Civil War. He had a successful but unremarkable career in the U.S. army. One year into the Civil War he took command of the main Confederate combat army, the Army of Northern Virginia. Lee immediately emerged as the swiftest and shrewdest battlefield tactician of the war, as typified by many victories such as at Fredericksburg (1862), Chancellorsville (1863) and Cold Harbor (1864). His strategic vision was more dubious--his invasions of the North in 1862 and 1863 were based on the false assumption that Northern morale was weak and could be shattered by rebel victories. They produced disastrous defeats at Antietam (1862) and Gettysburg (1863), while his failure to protect Vicksburg in 1863 cost the Confederacy control of its western regions. Nevertheless Lee's brilliant defensive maneuvers stopped the Union offenses one after another, as a series of Union commanders failed to win a single major battle in Virginia.
Lee believed in the Napoleonic doctrine of decisive battle--he aimed to destroy entire Union armies and thereby undercut the Yankee will to resist Confederate independence. He won many battles but never destroyed or captured a Union army. In any case the Union will to win was greater than the the Confederate, a differential that grew wider year by year. With his supplies of munition and manpower adequate for a short war of a year or two, Lee had to fight a long war of attrition where the odds overwhelmingly favored the North.
Then in 1864 Ulysses S. Grant took charge. He began the "Overland Campaign," a series of high-casualty battles in the bloody summer of 1864. Lee won each battle, technically, but could not replace his losses, and was forced to retreat into trenches around Richmond. Lee's lines finally collapsed in April 1865, and at Appomattox he accepted Grant's generous terms for surrender. Lee vetoed proposals to engage in guerrilla warfare and instead called on southerners to accept reunion and Reconstruction, especially on the terms offered by President Andrew Johnson. He became a national symbol of devotion to duty and genius in battle.
Career
Lee was born at Stratford, Westmoreland Co., Virginia, on January 19, 1807. His childhood was marked by downward mobility of his prominent father, General "Light-Horse Harry" Lee. On account of business losses and ill health, his father moved the family to Alexandria, Virginia. Here young Robert attended school until appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point, from which he graduated in 1829, standing second in his class. He was commissioned a lieutenant of engineers and for the next 15 years was engaged in the usual duties of an engineer officer in the United States army, notably being employed on improvements of the harbor of St. Louis and the channel of the Mississippi River. When the Mexican War broke out he was ordered to the Mexican border, where he was assigned to duty as an engineer with the army commanded by General Winfield Scott, which was preparing for its advance from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. He distinguished himself in the ensuing campaign by his intelligent and difficult reconnaissance work and was wounded in the storming of Chapultepec, Sept. 13, 1847.
After the war ended, Lee returned to duty in the Engineer Bureau in Washington and was a member of the board of engineers for the Atlantic Coast defenses. From 1852 to 1855, he served as superintendent of the United States Military Academy, after which, as a lieutenant colonel of one of the newly authorized cavalry regiments, he served in Texas until 1860 with the exception of two years, 1857-1859, spent on leave. He was on leave as executor of the estate of his wife's father, which included numerous slaves that were to be emancipated.
Coming of Civil War
While at his wife's home at Arlington, Virginia, across the Potomac River from Washington, Lee was detailed to command the force gathered to suppress John Brown's insurrection at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. In Texas in 1861 his commanding general surrendered the entire U.S. army command to the Texas government, then joined the Confederacy. Lee, who disliked slavery and rejected the Confederacy, returned to Washington. With war looming, President Abraham Lincoln wanted Lee. Lee was a colonel of cavalry, but the overall U.S. commander, Scott, offered a senior rank with the suggestion Lee would succeed Scott as commander. Lee accepted on condition that his home state Virginia not join the Confederacy. When it did so after Lincoln called for volunteers to invade South Carolina, he threw his support to his home state.
Civil War: 1861
He was commissioned major general in the Virginia state forces, and was one of the five general officers commissioned in 1861 by the Southern Confederacy. In the fall of 1861 he was assigned to command in the mountains in western Virginia (now West Virginia), but failed to overcome the chaos of Confederate supporters and the superior organization of Union armies. He misunderstood the politics of the region (which was intensely hostile to plantation owners like himself), lacked men and materials, and poorly coordinated his jealous subordinate commanders. He returned to Richmond, the Confederate capital, in October 1861, but was soon given command the southeast coast of the Confederacy; politicians distrusted him. Nevertheless President Jefferson Davis had full confidence in Lee and his ability, making Lee his chief military adviser, based in Richmond. General
Civil War: 1862
George B. McClellan, heading a large and well-equipped invasion force, was approaching Richmond in late May 1862. When the Confederate commander General Joseph E. Johnston was severely wounded, Lee was given the command. For the next three years he defended Richmond, as the survival of the Southern cause rested largely on his judgment, skill, and ability. Within a month Lee stopped McClellan and bottled him up on the Yorktown peninsula southeast of Richmond.
After a rest of a month or so to reorganize, equip, and reinforce his army, Lee led it northward toward Washington, expecting that McClellan would withdraw his forces from Yorktown to reinforce Washington. By the last week in August, Lee encountered General John Pope some 25 miles south of Washington. Lee won the "second battle of Bull Run." Washington was too heavily defended so Lee decided on a raid into Maryland to plunder supplies and to encourage recruiting for his army. Lee's forces were divided three ways, with Stonewall Jackson successfully capturing the Union arsenal at Harper's Ferry. Lee's secret plans accidentally fell into McClellan's hands. Usually McClellan was highly reluctant to attack, primarily because his overestimated Lee's strength by a factor of two. This time he knew Lee's forces were divided, but he wasted time while Lee, hearing news of the lost plans, frantically concentrated his forces[1]. September 17, 1862 saw the bloodiest single day of the war at the battle of Sharpsburg (or Antietam[2].) Jackson's reinforcements arrived just in time to make the battle was a standoff, but Lee had to retreat to Virginia. On Dec. 13, 1862, the Union army, now commanded by General Ambrose E. Burnside, crossed the Rappahannock River river from Fredericksburg in an attempt to defeat and destroy Lee's army, but the attacks were thrown back with heavy losses, and no further hostilities occurred during the winter.
Civil War: 1863
In late April 1863, the Union army, this time commanded by General Joseph Hooker, faced Lee along the line of the Rappahannock. at the battle of Chancellorsville, May 6, 1863, by brilliant maneuvering and skillful direction of his smaller army, Lee won a classic victory. His best subordinate, General "Stonewall" Jackson, was killed, a major loss for Lee.
Although Ulysses Grant was closing in on uncoordinated Confederate armies in the Vicksburg campaign, Lee ignored this strategic threat. Instead he turned to Northern politics for a miracle cure. Lee had never been interested in politics and misunderstood what was happening by relying on Copperhead papers that gloomily proclaimed the Union effort was doomed. To help that doom come faster Lee decided on an invasion of Pennsylvania. The raid promised large stories of desperately needed supplies, and Lee expected it would shock the Yankees into realization that the Confederacy had a superior moral fiber and commitment to win. A psychological victory would quickly end the war. Lee was dreaming--and he seems not to have consulted any Confederate politicians (or Yankee prisoners) who could have explained politics to him. Lee's movement started on the first of June and within a short time was well on its way through Maryland, with General George Meade, the new Union commander, moving north along parallel lines. Lee's cavalry, under General Jeb Stuart had the primary mission of gathering intelligence on where the enemy was position, but Stuart failed and instead raided some supply trains. He did not rejoin Lee until the battle was underway. Lee's armies threatened Harrisburg, Washington, Baltimore and even Philadelphia. Local militia units hurriedly formed to oppose Lee, but they were inconsequential in the face of a large, battle-hardened attack force. Gettysburg was a crossroads junction in heavily wooded areas. Over three days, July 1-3, Confederate forces arrived piecemeal from the northwest, while Union forces arrived piecemeal from the east. By July 1 Meade was to the south of Lee--Lee's retreat was cut off and he had to fight, and had to win. On July 1, 1863, the fighting began, with a Confederate advantage in manpower. The Union forces fell back on a fishhook position on hills to the southeast of town. see Gettysburg Campaign The bloody combat in very hot July weather climaxed in the spectacular but fruitless charge of General George E. Pickett's brigades into a trap set by Union forces atop Cemetery Ridge. Pickett failed, and lee was out of reserves (and out of artillery ammunition). After this decisive defeat, Lee was trapped, but Meade failed badly in not pursuing. Lee's escape was one of his greatest achievements. By the end of July Lee's depleted army was back in its camps around Orange Court House, Virginia. There was little important action the rest of the year.
The only bright spot was the Confederates systematically looted Pennsylvania and in retreat brought back enough captured food, wagons, hardware, horses and cattle to keep Lee supplied for months to come.[3] The looting indeed was part of Lee's plan, but the 28,000 casualties permanently weakened his army, leaving it no chance to take the initiative in the future.
Civil War: 1864
Civil War: 1861
Postwar
Memory and Legacy
Bibliography
Biographical
- Blount, Roy, Jr. Robert E. Lee (2003). 210 pp. short popular biography excerpt and text search
- Carmichael, Peter S. ed. Audacity Personified: The Generalship of Robert E. Lee (2004). excerpt and text search
- Connelly, Thomas L. "The Image and the General: Robert E. Lee in American Historiography." Civil War History 19 (March 1973): 50-64.
- Connelly, Thomas L. The Marble Man. Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society. (1977).
- Connelly, Thomas L. "Robert E. Lee and the Western Confederacy: A Criticism of Lee's Strategic Ability." Civil War History 15 (June 1969): 116-32
- Fellman, Michael. The Making of Robert E. Lee. (2000), fairly negative (ISBN 0-679-45650-3). excerpt and text search
- Flood, Charles Bracelen. Lee — The Last Years (1981).
- Freeman, Douglas S., R. E. Lee, A Biography (4 volumes), Scribners, 1934 (online in its entirety). The longest and most influential biography, by Pulitzer prize winner
- Gallagher, Gary W. Lee the Soldier. (1996) excerpt and text search
- Gallagher; Gary W. Lee & His Army in Confederate History. (2001) excerpt and text search
- Gallagher; Gary W. Lee and His Generals in War and Memory (1998) excerpt and text search
- McCaslin, Richard B. Lee in the Shadow of Washington. (2001). excerpt and text search
- Pryor, Elizabeth Brown. Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters. (2007).
- Reid, Brian Holden. Robert E. Lee: Icon for a Nation, (2005).
- Robertson, James. Robert E. Lee: Virginian Soldier, American Citizen (2005), 176 pages, for middle school audience
- Thomas, Emory Robert E. Lee (1995) (ISBN 0-393-03730-4) full-scale biography by leading scholar excerpt and text search
Military campaigns
see also U.S. Civil War, Bibliography
- Brown, Kent Masterson. Retreat from Gettysburg: Lee, Logistics, and the Pennsylvania Campaign. U. of North Carolina Press, 2005. excerpt and text search
- Cavanaugh, Michael A. and William Marvel, The Petersburg Campaign: The Battle of the Crater: "The Horrid Pit," June 25-August 6, 1864 (1989)
- Coddington, Edwin B. The Gettysburg Campaign: A Study in Command (1968), the best single book; excerpt and text search
- Dowdey, Clifford. The Seven Days 1964.
- Freeman, Douglas S. Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command (3 volumes), (1946), ISBN 0-684-85979-3.
- Fuller, Maj. Gen. J. F. C. Grant and Lee, A Study in Personality and Generalship (1957), ISBN 0-253-13400-5.
- Gallagher, Gary W., ed. Three Days at Gettysburg: Essays on Confederate and Union Leadership (1999) online edition
- Gallagher, Gary ed. The Second Day at Gettysburg and Beyond (1993) excerpt and text search
- Gallagher, Gary ed. The Third Day at Gettysburg and Beyond (1994)
- Grimsley, Mark, And Keep Moving On: The Virginia Campaign, May-June 1864 (2002).
- Harsh, Joseph L. Taken at the Flood: Robert E. Lee and Confederate Strategy in the Maryland Campaign of 1862 (1999)
- McPherson, James M. Crossroads of Freedom: Antietam (2002) excerpt and text search
- McPherson, James M. "To Conquer a Peace? Lee's Goals in the Gettysburg Campaign." Civil War Times (2007) 46(2): 26-33. Issn: 1546-9980 Fulltext: Ebsco
- McWhiney, Grady, Battle in the Wilderness: Grant Meets Lee (1995)
- Maney, R. Wayne, Marching to Cold Harbor. Victory and Failure, 1864 (1994).
- Marvel, William. Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox. (2002).
- Matter, William D., If It Takes All Summer: The Battle of Spotsylvania (1988) excerpt and text search
- Miller, J. Michael, The North Anna Campaign: "Even to Hell Itself," May 21-26, 1864 (1989).
- Nofi, Albert A. The Gettysburg Campaign, June-July 1863 (1997) online edition; excerpt and text search
- Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg: The First Day (2000) excerpt and text search
- Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg: The Second Day (1987) online edition excerpt and text search
- Rhea, Gordon C., The Battle of the Wilderness May 5–6, 1864, (1994) ISBN 0-8071-1873-7. excerpt and text search
- Rhea, Gordon C., The Battles for Spotsylvania Court House and the Road to Yellow Tavern May 7–12, 1864, (1997), ISBN 0-8071-2136-3. excerpt and text search
- Rhea, Gordon C., To the North Anna River: Grant and Lee, May 13–25, 1864, (2000), ISBN 0-8071-2535-0. excerpt and text search
- Rhea, Gordon C., Cold Harbor: Grant and Lee, May 26 – June 3, 1864, (2002), ISBN 0-8071-2803-1.
- Sears, Stephen W. Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam (2003) excerpt and text search
- Sears, Stephen W. Gettysburg (2004) excerpt and text search
- Trudeau, Noah. Bloody Roads South: The Wilderness to Cold Harbor, May-June 1864 (2002) excerpt and text search
- Trudeau, Noah Andrew. The Last Citadel: Petersburg, Virginia, June 1864-April 1865 (1991)
- Woodworth, Steven E. Beneath a Northern Sky: A Short History of the Gettysburg Campaign. (2003). 241 pp.
Primary sources
- Dowdey, Clifford. and Louis H. Manarin, eds. The Wartime Papers of R. E. Lee. (1961).
- Freeman, Douglas Southall. ed. Unpublished Letters of General Robert E. Lee, C.S.A. to Jefferson Davis and the War Department of the Confederate States of America, 1862-65. Rev. ed. with foreword by Grady McWhiney. (1957).
- Johnson, R. U. and Buel, C. C. eds. Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. 4 vols. New York, 1887-88; essays by leading generals of both sides; online edition
- Taylor, Walter H. Four Years with General Lee Reprint. (1962).
- Taylor, Walter H. General Lee — His Campaigns in Virginia, 1861-1865. (1906) online complete edition
Footnotes
- ↑ One of Lee's couriers accidentally dropped the plans, wrapped around some cigars. An Indiana soldier found them and his colonel took them to McClellan, who exclaimed before a local delegation that he had Lee trapped. One visitor slipped away and reached Lee by midnight. McClellan had decided to sleep on his secret and did not issue orders until the morning.
- ↑ Confederates named battles after the nearest town, Sharpsburg, while the Union named them after the nearest river, Antietam.
- ↑ They also captured some free blacks and made them slaves.