History of economic thought

Economics is a social science. It studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The word 'economics', originally "rules of the house", comes from the Greek οἶκος (oikos: house) and νόμος (nomos: custom or law). Economics stems from the natural propensity of human beings to barter, to exchange or trade goods. Whilst there are no records of dogs ever having bartered bones, humans have been bartering all sorts of goods since pre-history. Economics as an independent science - and as we understand the word today - begins with the work of Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations. . Before Smith, Economics was just a chapter in political science, the art of managing a state. This article will focus on economics since it became a science independent from politics. For the history of early economics leading up to the development of The Wealth of Nations see the article History of Ancient Economics.

Definition of Economics

Even the definition of economics is subject to controversy. Many economists view economics as the study of how scarce resources are allocated to satisfy alternative competing human wants. This is a "neo-classical" view first formulated by Lionel Robbins in 1935 and repeated in most economics texts; for example, Paul Samuelson, who, in his famous book Economics - An Introductory Analysis , defines Economics as:

the study of how men and society 'choose', with or without the use of money, to employ 'scarce' productive resources to produce various commodities over time and distribute them for consumption, now an in the future, among various people and groups in society.

However, a more traditional view is that "Economics is the subject concerned with the material welfare of individuals and groups in society" (Asimakopulos, 1978). or "The economic problem is the study of the process of providing for the material well-being of society". (Heilbroner), or the famous Alfred Marshall "Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of the material requisites of wellbeing."

The list of acceptable definitions of economics is endless. Economics can be described as the study of those activities which, with or without money, involve exchange transactions among people. Economics is also the study of wealth.

One can play with definitions, but a favourite remains the one proposed by a Canadian economist, Jacob Viner (1892-1970) as "Economics is what economists do".

Classical economy

The "Classical" period of economic thought began in 1776 with the publication of Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations . Written during the gentle era of Enlightenment, the laissez-faire policies of Adam Smith did not anticipate the economic and social upheavals that the industrial era was about to unleash. Only 13 years later the French court was bankrupt and the French people took to the streets and beheaded their king; it was the French Revolution.

Among the economists who tried to understand the new phenomena three were outstanding: Jean-Baptiste Say , Thomas Robert Malthus and David Ricardo. They all had different visions for political economy after Smith. Of those, Ricardo was the most succesful and influential and laid the basis for the Classical Economy that would become the mainstream economy thought for the whole of the XIX century

Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) is most famous for his "Essay on the Principle of Population" where he formulated the theory that population expanded at a geometric rate (or exponentially) while food production could only increase arithmetically. At a certain point, the population increase would outrun the food supply, and result in general misery. Malthus was one of the major inspirations for Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection, and his echoes can be found in today’s environmental literature that warn of depleting resources.

David Ricardo (1772-1823) was perhaps the most important of the XIXth century political economists. He combined Smith's labour theory of value with Malthus's population dynamics in a system which showed that capitalist economies would eventually result in a steady state of universal misery. On his On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation Ricardo set the theoretical fundaments of the Classical Economy.

Ricardo's system depended on the idea of the marginal productivity of land, and was the inventor of the "marginal" concept. His idea was that the value of agricultural products (and hence food) was based on the amount of labour required to produce on the least fertile parcel of land. Hence the "Law of diminishing marginal productivity". Landlords owning land that was more fertile, and who could produce more for a given amount of land, obtained "rents". His conclusion was that the future was in buying land. He, of course, did not predict the tremendous increase in technology and productive capacity brought about by the capitalist system.

Ricardo was also responsible for the idea of comparative advantage in international trade . His classic example was between wine and clothing and England and Portugal. Portugal was more efficient than England in producing both cloth and wine, but England had a comparative advantage in cloth production. He showed that it would be advantageous for Portugal to specialize in wine and England to specialize in cloth, and to trade with each other. This resulted in more wine and cloth all around.

Karl Marx is the most famous of Ricardo's followers. In Samuelson's words, he was a "minor Ricardian" - and had little impact on the development of pure economic theory. His economics differed little from Ricardo's, but had different conclusions. He placed little emphasis on the diminishing marginal productivity of land, but more importance on the falling rate of profit. To Marx, capitalist competition would lead to the impoverishment of the "proletariat" or working class and a falling rate of profit. The ultimate resolution would be a communist revolution with the workers seizing power. Soon after the death of Karl Marx , a Marxian school of economics emerged under the leadership of Marx's inner circle of companions and co-writers, notably Friedrich Engels and Karl Kautsky , both of whom were German.

The marginalist revolution

The German economist Hermann Heinrich Gossen (1810-1859) was the first one to formulate in 1854, in an obscure German book , "The First Gossen Law'", which was actually the first "marginalist law"; but Gossen's work remained completely unknown. In the 1870's, three economists became responsible for what is called the "Marginalist Revolution" - William Stanley Jevons , Carl Menger and Léon Walras . They, independently of each other, developed a new theory of value based on utility. The three are responsible for the concept of marginal utility , and the derivation of a downward sloping demand curve . The Marginalist Revolution put an end to the The Classical Scholl and the era of the Neoclassical School , which lasts to today, began. This made possible the logical analysis of the "Producers's Decision" or how and why "producer" transforms factors of production into finished goods.

Alfred Marshall (1900-1920) was responsible for the combination of "demand" and "supply" ,where demand was based on "marginal utility". He was responsible for developing numerous concepts still used in economics, including: demand and supply curves or schedules and their equilibrium, "elasticity of demand" , consumer surplus, the distinction between short- and long-period, etc. Modern microeconomics] , the study of individual economic agents and individual markets, is a continuation and elaboration of his work.

Marshall's work was only the beginning. His work was refined and further developed, and continues to be extended to this day. Neoclassical economists have built a truly astounding logical edifice into a "Production Function" that rival Newtonian mechanics in completeness and rigour. The basis of neo-classical economics is maximisation under constraint, and this constantly involves the "marginal concept" . The tools developed by economists are even now beginning to be used by other social sciences such as anthropology, sociology and even psychology.

The Great Depression and Keynesianism

However, the edifice of Neoclassical economics suffered a severe blow with the Great Depression of the 1930's. According to the Neoclassical economists unemployment is not supposed to occur in competitive markets. For them it can only occur if monopolistic forces prevent the demand and supply of labour from reaching its natural equilibrium. This was clearly not what was happening during the 1930's.

Marshall's most famous disciple and pupil, John Maynard Keynes, attacked the neoclassical system with the publication of the General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money in 1936. Keynes showed that the depression was due to insufficient aggregate demand and advocated the need for government intervention to restore full employment. In the process, he created macro-economics.

Microeconomics is a continuation and elaboration of the work of the early neo-classicals. It deals with the behaviour of individuals and firms, and with individual markets. Other 1930's economists, Joan Robinson at Cambridge and Edwin Chamberlin in the U.S. developed the theory of imperfect competition. Joan Robinson was responsible for the idea that profit maximization involve the equation of marginal cost and marginal revenue, while Chamberlin was responsible for the idea of monopolistic competition and product differentiation.

Keynesianism became the orthodoxy in economics until well into the 1970's. In order not to abandon all the neo-classical economics that had been built up, the dominant economic ideology became the Keynesian-neo-classical synthesis. The basic idea was to let the government ensure full employment, and then neo-classical economics could be used to ensure the best allocations of resources. The Keynesian-neo-classical synthesis is generally associated with Paul Samuelson, who wrote the most influential ever textbook in economics. Most economics texts today are clones of Samuelson's text, generally following the same general outline. The 1950's and 60's were the heyday of Keynesian economics, when most economists believed that the judicious application of government intervention could smooth out the business cycle and ensure full employment without inflation.

The monetarist "counterrevolution"

While the Keynesian-Neoclassical synthesis took over the profession, an unregenerate rearguard of neo-classical economists centred at the University of Chicago continued to exist. They never accepted the idea of involuntary unemployment or government intervention to ensure full employment, and strongly believed in the virtues of markets and laissez-faire. The most famous economist of the Chicago School is Milton Friedman. He was mainly responsible for what is known as the Monetarist counterrevolution of the 1970's. Not only did they succeed in bringing the Keynesian theory down, but they considerably extended the scope of microeconomics to include even education and family formation.

With the perceived failure of Keynesian economics to explain and correct the "stagflation" of the 1970's, the free market prescriptions of monetarism became much more popular, and were eventually espoused by many right wing governments in the 1980's (Reagan, Thatcher, Mulroney), and, perhaps more importantly, by the central banks of most industrialized countries.

Economics today and the Keynesian revival

However, the basic prescription of monetarism failed when it was attempted in the late 1970s and early 1980s. For some this meant moving to even more radical free market positions (Rational Expectations and Real Business Cycle theories), while others attempted to put Keynesian economics on a more sound microeconomic foundation such as the New Keynesian economics .

Economics today is in a state of crisis, with a number of contending schools and a whole lot of economists in between. The schools that can be distinguished include from left to right: Marxists, Neo-Ricardians, Post Autistic, Post Keynesians, New Keynesians, various degrees of Neo-classical-Keynesians, various degrees of Monetarists, Real Business Cycle, Rational Expectationist. They differ fundamentally about the amount and level of government intervention in the economy, ranging from almost total control for Marxists to complete libertarian laissez-faire for the Rational Expectationists.

However, a new dominant school or mainstream seems to be emerging: the "New Keynesians" . They reject the simplistic laissez-faire of the monetarists, but recognize many of their criticisms as valid and see some limitations to the ability of governments to act to cure all economic ills. They are particularly preoccupied with creating a proper microeconomic foundation for Keynesian economics. They focus mainly on rigidities, market imperfections, and the economics of information, which result in the need for some kinds of government intervention, but without the unbridled faith in the ability of government to solve all problems that Keynesians had in the 1950's and 60's. One of the leading new-keynesian economists is Joseph Stiglitz , who won the The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 2001 a.k.a., imprecisely, Nobel in Economics.

Alternative schools

The schools of economic thought which differ from the mainstream Neoclassical tradition are called "Heterodox". Among them one of the most important are the Keynesians (and their sub-divisions)

Heterodox tradition

The strain of economic thought that begins with the Utopians and Socialists (Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1712-1788) and follows with The Fabian Socialists, Gustav Schmoller and the German Historical School, The English Historical School, The French Historical School, Thorstein Veblen and the American Institutionalist School, Joseph Schumpeter and Evolutionary Economics, The Soviet Planning Economists, The Neo-Marxians/Radical Political Economy and the New School for Social Research forms what is called the Heterodox Tradition and will be subjetct of another article.

Keynesians

John Maynard Keynes is reputedly one the most important figures in the entire history of economics. He revolutionized economics with his classic book, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936). This is generally regarded as probably the most influential social science treatise of the 20th Century. It permanently changed the way the world looked at the economy and the role of government in society.

Thematic Schools

Thematic Schools refer to those schools of economic thought which concentrate on the study of some particluar aspect of economics. The most important themes studied by the Thematic Schools are: Business Cycle Theory, Empirics and Econometrics, Imperfect Competition, Economic Development, Uncertainty and Information, Game Theory and Finance Theory.

Economics subdisciplines

Modern Economic Theory is divided in two main branches: Microeconomics which is concerned with the actions of "individual economic agents" and Macroeconomics which studies the aggregate economy.

Some of the Economics subdisciplines do not fit neatly into those major divisions, reaching parts of both; they are the "Comprehensive subdisciplines".

External Links

• ECONOMICS 100 ONLINE. Department of Economics at the University of Toronto<copyright K.J. Rea, 2000-2003 all rights reserved>. (A great "primer" to understanding the basic principles of Economics)

• MICROECONOMICS: Most important concepts explained in detail. Text and workable problems. WARNING: Internet Explorer will not work! Get "Firefox" or "Netscape" for free. Requires "Adobe Acrobat Reader" as a helper to your web browser. You will need "Excel 97" or higher running on your computer to use the spreadsheets.

• The History of Economic Thought Website <forever 'under construction'> ]

• World Wide Web Resources in Economics. Center for Innovative Education, Helsinki School of Economics, Finland. (An excellent sorce of links to the various Economics subdisciplines)

• Xenophon

See also

• Classical economy
• Econometrics
• Economic Theory
• Econophysics
• History of Ancient Economics
• Keynesians
• Macroeconomics
• Microeconomics
• Neoclassical Schools (1871-today)
• Neuroeconomics
• Supply and demand

Bibliography

• ASIMAKOPULOS, Athanasios; with CAIRNS, Robert D. and GREEN, Christopher.Economic Theory, Welfare, and the State. Montreal: McGill University Press, 1991. ISBN 0773508538.

• BECCARIA, Marquis Caesar Beccaria Bonesaria. A Discourse on Public Economy and Commerce. Hamilton, Ontario: McMaster University.

• BENTHAM, Jeremy. Defence of Usury(1787). Hamilton, Ontario: McMaster University.

• CANTILLON, Richard. An Essay on Commerce in General. Hamilton, Ontario: McMaster University.

• FERGUSON, Adam. An Essay on the History of Civil Society. Hamilton, Ontario: McMaster University.

• GALIANI, Ferdinando. Della Moneta. Hamilton, Ontario, McMaster Universisty

• GALIANI, Ferdinando. Dialogues sur le commerce des bleds. Hamilton, Ontario, McMaster Universisty

• GOSSEN, Hermann Heinrich. The Laws of Human Relations and the Rules of Human Action Derived Therefrom.Translated by Rudolph C. Blitz; introduction by Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983. ISBN 0262070901

• HANEY, Lewis H., Ph.D. History of economic thought: a critical account of the origin and development of the economic theories of the leading thinkers in the leading nations. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1920.

• HUME, David. Of The Original Contract (1748), Edited and rendered into HTML by Jon Roland, in: www.constitution.org.

• HUME, David. Selected Essays (1748).in: www.constitution.org.

• HUME, David. Idea Of A Perfect Commonwealth (1754). Edited and rendered into HTML by Jon Roland. in: www.constitution.org.

• HUME, David. Of Interest. Hamilton, Ontario: McMaster University.

• HUME, David. Of the Balance of Trade. Hamilton, Ontario: McMaster University.

• KENT, James. Commentaries on American Law (in four volumes). New York: Published by O. Halstead, 15th edition, 1826. Edited by Jon Roland, 1997-2002. in: www.constitution.org.

• KEYNES, John Maynard. Treatise on Money, A. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co.; 1st American edition; 1930

• KEYNES, John Maynard. General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, The. London: Macmillan Press; New York: St. Martin's Press; 1936

• LEIJOHNUFVUD, Axel. On Keynesian economics and the economics of Keynes : a study in monetary theory. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968.

• LERNER, Abba. The Economics of Control: Principles of Welfare Economics. New York: MacMillan, 1960. First published in 1944

• PARETO, Vilfredo. Cours d'Economie Politique. F.Rouge, Lausanne, 1896.

• PARETO, Vilfredo. Manual of Political Economy; Translated By Ann S. Schwier; Edited By Ann S. Schwier and Alfred N. Page Pareto; Publisher: Augustus M. Kelley; 1971.

• QUESNAY, François (1694-1774). Analyse de la formule arithmétique du TABLEAU ÉCONOMIQUE de la distribution des dépenses annuelles d'une Nation agricole. Courtesy of Mme Paulette Taieb, Université de Paris

• RICARDO, David. The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. 1815 (third ed. 1821). Hamilton, Ontario: McMaster University.

• ROSSEAU, Jean Jacques. A Discourse On Political Economy(1755). in: www.constitution.org.

• RUBINSTEIN, Ariel. Lecture notes in microeconomic theory : the economic agent. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006.

• SECONDAT,Charles de, Baron de Montesquieu. The Spirit Of The Laws. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, Based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London.

• SMITH, Adam (1723-1790). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., ed. Edwin Cannan, 1904. Fifth edition. (Downloadable)

• STIGLITZ, Joseph E. Samuelson and the Factor Bias of Technological Change: Toward a Unified Theory of Growth and Unemployment. in: 17; Szenberg; Chap16; 13/07/06 03:35 PM; pp. 235-251.

• STIGLITZ, Joseph E. and GREENWALD, Bruce. Helping Infant Economies Grow: Foundations of Trade Policies for Developing Countries. New Developments in Macroeconomics, in:American Economic Review, Volume 96, Number 2 (May 2006), pp. 141-146.

• STIGLITZ, Joseph E. and GREENWALD, Bruce. Towards a New Paradigm in Monetary Economics. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521810345

• STIGLITZ, Joseph E. Making Globalization Work, W.W. Norton, September, 2006. ISBN 0393061221

• THOMAS AQUINAS, Saint (1225?-1274).The Summa Theologica. Benziger Bros. edition, 1947. Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province.Acknowledgement: This digital file was produced through the kindness of Sandra K. Perry, Perrysburg, Ohio.

• TUCKER, St. George.Blackstone's Commentaries: with notes of reference to the Constitution and Laws of the Federal Government of the United States; and of the Commonwealth of Virginia. in: www.constitution.org.

• TURGOT, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de l'Aulne (1727-1781).Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses, Paris, 1788. Courtesy of Mme Paulette Taieb, Université de Paris

• TURGOT, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de l'Aulne (1727-1781).Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth. London: Printed by E. Spragg, 1793. Translated from the French. First published 1774.

• WALRAS, Léon. Eléments d'économie politique pure, ou Théorie de la richesse sociale. Lausanne: F.Rouge, Paris Guillaumin; Paris: Guillaumin & Cie [etc.], et al.; 1889.

• WALRAS, Léon.Economique e Mecanique. (1909). Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise de Sciences Naturelles, Vol. 45, p.313-325. Suivie d'une lettre de Henri Poincaré (1901), et avec une note introductive de G.H. Bousquet (1960). Transcription par Gonçalo L. Fonseca (History of the Economic Thought Website), Courtesy of Mme Paulette Taieb, Université de Paris