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The '''Adams-Onís Treaty''' also called the '''Transcontinental Treaty''' or the '''Florida Treaty''' was a treaty between the United States and Spain in 1818 that gave Florida to the U.S. and set out a boundary between the U.S. and Mexico.  
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The '''Adams-Onís Treaty''' (1818), also called the '''Transcontinental Treaty''' or the '''Florida Treaty''', between the United States and Spain, ceded [[Florida (U.S. state)|Florida]] to the U.S. and established the boundary between the U.S. and Mexico.


The treaty was signed at Washington, February 22, 1819, by [[John Quincy Adams]], secretary of state, and [[Luis de Onís]], Spanish minister. It closed the first era of United States expansion by providing for the cession of [[East Florida]], the abandonment of the controversy over [[West Florida]] (which had been seized by the United States), and creation of a boundary with the Spanish province of [[Mexico, history|Mexico]] that clearly made [[Texas, history|Texas]] a part of Mexico, thus ending the vagueness of the boundary of the [[Louisiana Purchase]].  Spain also gave up any claims to the [[Oregon Territory]].
==American/Spanish relations to 1818==
Spain had long rejected repeated U.S. efforts to purchase Florida. But by 1818, Spain was facing a troubling colonial situation in which the cession of Florida made sense.  Spain had been financially and politically exhausted by the European wars of Napoleon and needed to rebuild its credibility and presence in its colonies.  Revolutionaries in Central and South America were beginning to demand independence.  As Spain was unwilling to make any further investment in Florida, and because it worried about U.S. designs on the territory following [[Andrew Jackson]]'s invasion of 1818, the sale of Florida seemed like a good course of action.


The U.S. did not pay Spain for Florida but did agree to assumed claims of American citizens against Spain as a result of the West Florida controversy, to a maximum of $5 million.  [[Pinckney's Treaty]] of 1795 between the U.S. and Spain was to remain in forceSpanish goods received certain tariff privileges in Florida ports.  
Spain had almost no military or government presence in Florida and was unable to stop [[Seminole]] warriors who routinely crossed the border and raided U.S. villages and farms or prevent runaway slaves from crossing the border southwardsDuring the [[First Seminole War]], [[Andrew Jackson]], on his own authority invaded Spanish Florida with his own militia in 1818.  While his ostensible purpose that he was pursuing Indians and runaways, he also attack Spanish forts in Florida, thus provoking an international incident between the U.S. and Spain.  Secretary of War John C. Calhoun privately denounced Jackson's actions while Adams saw opportunity to gain Florida.


The new boundary between the US and Spanish Mexico ran along the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico north to the 32nd parallel; thence north to the Red River, along it to the 100th meridian; north to the Arkansas River and along it to its source; thence to the 42nd parallel; and west on that line to the Pacific Ocean.  
==Negotiations==
[[James Monroe|President Monroe's]] Secretary of State [[John Quincy Adams]] more than anyone else was responsible for the treaty.  He was the architect of a sophisticated strategy which combined diplomatic and military means to bring Spain to terms.<ref>William E. Weeks, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=t0rlgdR_Sx8C&lpg=PP1&pg=PA170 John Quincy Adams and American Global Empire]'' (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2002), 170-175.</ref>  Adams also directed an intensive public relations campaign which maintained public and Congressional support for the administration's policy.


Spain had long rejected repeated American efforts to purchase Florida. Finally exhausted by European wars and colonial revolutions, and unwilling to invest in Florida, Spain cut its losses and gained a secure boundary for Mexico.  Spain had almost no presence in Florida and was unable to stop [[Seminole]] Indians who routinely raided the U.S. In 1818, [[Andrew Jackson]] invaded Spanish Florida in order to stop these Indian raids and instigated an international incident between the US and SpainSpain requested British intervention, but Britain declined to assist Spain in the negotiations.
==Terms==
The treaty was signed in Washington, D.C. on February 22, 1819, by Adams and the Spanish minister to the U.S. [[Luis de Onís]]. The treaty closed the first era of United States expansion by providing for the cession of [[East Florida]], the abandonment of the controversy over [[West Florida]] (which the U.S. had seized in 1810), and defining the boundary of the Spanish province of Mexico at the [[Red River]]Defining the boundary of Mexico at the [[Sabine River]] clearly made [[Texas (U.S. state)|Texas]] a part of Mexico thus ending the vagueness of the boundary of the [[Louisiana Purchase]].  Spain also gave up any claims to the [[Oregon Territory]]With the completion of this treaty, the U.S. controlled all territory on the North American continent south of the Great Lakes and East of the Mississippi River.


The ministers of [[Ferdinand VII|King Ferdinand VII (reigned (1808-33)]] at first refused to ratify the treatyThe Spanish argued that James Long's 1819 filibustering expedition into Texas was a violation of the treaty. In order to placate Madrid, Washington disavowed Long's actions. Spain's real goal was to stop American recognition of the independence of breakaway colonies in Latin America. When Ferdinand lost some powers and became a constitutional monarch in 1820, his council was obliged to approve the treaty.  Ratification became official in 1821.
The U.S. did not pay Spain for Florida but did agree to assumed responsibility for the claims of American citizens against Spain as a result of the West Florida controversy to a maximum of $5 million[[Pinckney's Treaty]] of 1795 between the U.S. and Spain was to remain in force and Spanish goods were to receive certain tariff privileges in Florida ports.  


Adams more than anyone else was responsible for the treaty. He was the architect of a sophisticated strategy which combined diplomatic and military means to bring Spain to terms.  Adams also directed an intensive public relations campaign which maintained public and Congressional support for the administration's policy.<ref> See Weeks (1986) </ref>
The new boundary between the U.S. and Spanish Mexico ran along the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico north to the 32nd parallel; then north to the Red River, along it to the 100th meridian; north to the Arkansas River and along it to its source; then north to the 42nd parallel; and then west on that line to the Pacific Ocean.


In order to implement the treaty, Congress established a commissio (1821-1824) to handle Americans' claims against SpainMany notable lawyers, including [[Daniel Webster]] and [[William Wirt]], represented claimants before the commissionDuring its time, the commission examined 1,859 claims arising from over 720 [[spoliation]] incidents, and distributed the $5 million in a basically fair manner.<ref> Cash (1998)</ref>
==Implementation==
The ministers of [[Ferdinand VII|King Ferdinand VII]] at first refused to ratify the treaty.  The Spanish argued that the U.S. had already broken the treaty by [[James Long]]'s [[1819 expedition]] into Texas.  In order to placate Madrid, Washington disavowed Long's actions.  Spain's real goal was to stop American recognition of the independence of breakaway colonies in Latin AmericaWhen Ferdinand lost some powers and became a constitutional monarch in 1820, his council was obliged to approve the treaty.  Ratification became official in 1821.


The treaty reduced tensions with Spain (and after 1821, Mexico) and allowed budget cutters in Congress to reduce the army budget and reject the plans to modernize and expand the army proposed by Secretary of War [[John C. Calhoun]].
In order to implement the treaty, Congress established a claims commission (1821-1824) to handle Americans' claims against Spain.  Many notable lawyers, including [[Daniel Webster]] and [[William Wirt]], represented claimants before the commission.  During its time, the commission examined 1,859 claims arising from over 720 [[spoliation]] incidents and distributed the $5 million in a fair manner.<ref>Peter Arnold Cash, "The Adams-Onís Treaty Claims Commission: Spoliation and Diplomacy, 1795-1824" (Ph.D. diss., University of Memphis, 1998).</ref>


The treaty was honored by both sides until it was replaced by the [[Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of|Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo]] in 1848, after the [[Mexican-American War|U.S. defeated Mexico]].  Inaccurate maps from the treaty meant that the boundary between Texas and Oklahoma remained unclear for most of the 19th century.
The treaty reduced tensions between the U.S. and Spain (and also, after 1821, between the U.S. and Mexico) and allowed budget cutters in Congress to reduce the army budget and reject the plans to modernize and expand the army as proposed by Secretary of War [[John C. Calhoun]].


==Notes==
The treaty was ratified by Mexico in 1831 and was honored until it was replaced by the [[Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo]] in 1848 after the [[Mexican-American War]].  Inaccurate maps from the treaty, however, meant that the boundary between Texas and Oklahoma remained unclear for most of the 19th century.
<references/>
 
==References==
{{reflist}}
 
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The Adams-Onís Treaty (1818), also called the Transcontinental Treaty or the Florida Treaty, between the United States and Spain, ceded Florida to the U.S. and established the boundary between the U.S. and Mexico.

American/Spanish relations to 1818

Spain had long rejected repeated U.S. efforts to purchase Florida. But by 1818, Spain was facing a troubling colonial situation in which the cession of Florida made sense. Spain had been financially and politically exhausted by the European wars of Napoleon and needed to rebuild its credibility and presence in its colonies. Revolutionaries in Central and South America were beginning to demand independence. As Spain was unwilling to make any further investment in Florida, and because it worried about U.S. designs on the territory following Andrew Jackson's invasion of 1818, the sale of Florida seemed like a good course of action.

Spain had almost no military or government presence in Florida and was unable to stop Seminole warriors who routinely crossed the border and raided U.S. villages and farms or prevent runaway slaves from crossing the border southwards. During the First Seminole War, Andrew Jackson, on his own authority invaded Spanish Florida with his own militia in 1818. While his ostensible purpose that he was pursuing Indians and runaways, he also attack Spanish forts in Florida, thus provoking an international incident between the U.S. and Spain. Secretary of War John C. Calhoun privately denounced Jackson's actions while Adams saw opportunity to gain Florida.

Negotiations

President Monroe's Secretary of State John Quincy Adams more than anyone else was responsible for the treaty. He was the architect of a sophisticated strategy which combined diplomatic and military means to bring Spain to terms.[1] Adams also directed an intensive public relations campaign which maintained public and Congressional support for the administration's policy.

Terms

The treaty was signed in Washington, D.C. on February 22, 1819, by Adams and the Spanish minister to the U.S. Luis de Onís. The treaty closed the first era of United States expansion by providing for the cession of East Florida, the abandonment of the controversy over West Florida (which the U.S. had seized in 1810), and defining the boundary of the Spanish province of Mexico at the Red River. Defining the boundary of Mexico at the Sabine River clearly made Texas a part of Mexico thus ending the vagueness of the boundary of the Louisiana Purchase. Spain also gave up any claims to the Oregon Territory. With the completion of this treaty, the U.S. controlled all territory on the North American continent south of the Great Lakes and East of the Mississippi River.

The U.S. did not pay Spain for Florida but did agree to assumed responsibility for the claims of American citizens against Spain as a result of the West Florida controversy to a maximum of $5 million. Pinckney's Treaty of 1795 between the U.S. and Spain was to remain in force and Spanish goods were to receive certain tariff privileges in Florida ports.

The new boundary between the U.S. and Spanish Mexico ran along the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico north to the 32nd parallel; then north to the Red River, along it to the 100th meridian; north to the Arkansas River and along it to its source; then north to the 42nd parallel; and then west on that line to the Pacific Ocean.

Implementation

The ministers of King Ferdinand VII at first refused to ratify the treaty. The Spanish argued that the U.S. had already broken the treaty by James Long's 1819 expedition into Texas. In order to placate Madrid, Washington disavowed Long's actions. Spain's real goal was to stop American recognition of the independence of breakaway colonies in Latin America. When Ferdinand lost some powers and became a constitutional monarch in 1820, his council was obliged to approve the treaty. Ratification became official in 1821.

In order to implement the treaty, Congress established a claims commission (1821-1824) to handle Americans' claims against Spain. Many notable lawyers, including Daniel Webster and William Wirt, represented claimants before the commission. During its time, the commission examined 1,859 claims arising from over 720 spoliation incidents and distributed the $5 million in a fair manner.[2]

The treaty reduced tensions between the U.S. and Spain (and also, after 1821, between the U.S. and Mexico) and allowed budget cutters in Congress to reduce the army budget and reject the plans to modernize and expand the army as proposed by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun.

The treaty was ratified by Mexico in 1831 and was honored until it was replaced by the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in 1848 after the Mexican-American War. Inaccurate maps from the treaty, however, meant that the boundary between Texas and Oklahoma remained unclear for most of the 19th century.

References

  1. William E. Weeks, John Quincy Adams and American Global Empire (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2002), 170-175.
  2. Peter Arnold Cash, "The Adams-Onís Treaty Claims Commission: Spoliation and Diplomacy, 1795-1824" (Ph.D. diss., University of Memphis, 1998).