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The '''underarm bowling incident of 1981''', also known as the '''Australian underarm bowling incident''', was an international [[sport]]ing controversy in 1981, between [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], which resulted in [[underarm bowling]] being made illegal by the [[International Cricket Council]]. It is considered one of the most disgraceful moments in the history of [[Cricket (sport)|cricket]], and seriously damaged the image of Australians as fair sportsmen.
In the sport of [[cricket (sport)|cricket]], the act of '''bowling''' is [[Glossary of cricket#Delivery|delivery]] of the [[Glossary of cricket#Ball|ball]] by the '''bowler''' from his end of the [[Glossary of cricket#Pitch|pitch]] to the other, where the [[Glossary of cricket#Wicket|wicket]] is defended by the [[Glossary of cricket#Striker|striker]] armed with a [[Glossary of cricket#Bat|bat]].<ref name="BWC694">Barclay's, page 694.</ref> In a dictionary definition, "to bowl" is to "propel the ball towards the wicket for the batsman to attempt to hit".<ref>Oxford, page 165.</ref> Delivery must be done fairly in accordance with ''[[The Laws of Cricket]]''.


==The events==
Originally, all bowling was done with an underarm action and, depending on the speed of delivery, the ball was rolled, skimmed or trundled along the ground with minimal bounce. To counter this, the batsman used a bat shaped like a modern [[hockey]] stick. In about 1760, the pitched delivery was introduced (still with an underarm action) whereby the ball is "given air" in order to obtain significant bounce. It is believed that the aim has always been to bounce the ball once only and bowlers began to experiment with line, length and trajectory. The hockey stick shape was no use against the bouncing and the straight bat was invented. Roundarm bowling, performed with an outward horizontal swing of the arm, was devised sometime around the end of the eighteenth century and, in the 1820s, a growing campaign called the "March of Intellect" was mounted to have the style legalised. Amid fierce controversy, this was achieved in 1835 and roundarm became the predominant style of bowling until 1864 when the modern overarm style was legalised, again controversially.
{{Image|Underarmscreenshot.jpg|right|200px|A screenshot of the underarm delivery with Trevor Chappell bowling, Brian McKechnie facing, and Bruce Edgar at the non-strikers end.}}


The controversial match occurred on 1 February 1981, when Australia was playing a [[One Day International]] final against New Zealand in the 1980-1981 [[Benson and Hedges]] [[World Series Cup]], at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.<ref>{{Cite web | title = 3rd Final: Australia v New Zealand at Melbourne, Feb 1, 1981 | publisher = Cricinfo | date = 1 February 1981 | url = http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65317.html | accessdate = 14 July 2013}}</ref> The five game series was tied one-all as New Zealand had won the first match and the Australia the second match. It was the third match, in which this incident took place. Australia having won the toss chose to bat and accumulated a reasonable score of 235 for 4, in 50 overs. Australian captain Greg Chappell top scored with an innings of 90, despite appearing to have been caught on the boundary by Martin Snedden on 52 and refusing to walk.<ref>{{cite book |last = Blofeld |first = Henry |chapter = World Series Cup - Third Final Match: Australia v New Zealand 1980-81 |title = Wisden Cricketers' Almanack 1982 |publisher = John Wisden & Co |year = 1982 |url = http://www.cricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/155265.html |isbn = 978-1-4081-2466-6}}</ref> New Zealand strongly replied by scoring 229 in 49.5 overs with Bruce Edgar scoring 102 not out, and they required six runs to tie the match with two wickets remaining, off the final delivery. Trevor Chappell prepared to bowl the final ball of the match, and had already claimed two wickets that over, one dubious lbw (Richard Hadlee) and one bowled (Ian Smith) with his regular bowling action, when Brian McKechnie walked out to bat with one delivery to face. Then Greg Chappell instructed his bowler (his younger brother) Trevor Chappell to roll the ball underhand along the pitch so that McKechnie who was on strike, a lower-order number ten batsman who had never before hit a six in his career, could not score six runs from over the boundary of the world's largest cricket ground. McKechnie was unable to loft the ball for six and was forced to block out the delivery, then threw his bat in the direction towards the New Zealand [[dressing room]] in disgust as both teams left the field of play. Even though Australia had just won the match, spectators booed and jeered the Australian team off the field for displaying such bad sportsmanship.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Ashamed to be an Aussie | newspaper = The Sydney Morning Herald | location = Sydney | language = English | publisher = Fairfax Newspapers | date = 2 February 1981 | accessdate = 14 July 2013}}</ref> As it turned out, in the confusion before the final ball was bowled, one of the fielders, Dennis Lillee, had failed to walk into position, meaning that the underarm ball at delivery was a [[no-ball]], because under the playing conditions Australia had one too many fielders outside the field restriction circle, but was not called so by the square-leg umpire. Extra police came on to to field to cordon the ground from a crowd invasion, and a furious New Zealand captain Geoffrey Howarth ran up to the umpires, disgusted at what transpired, pointing out that under the ''Rules of the Benson & Hedges Cup - 1980'' Appendix H (iii) No Ball - Mode of Delivery; no bowler may deliver the ball underarm. The umpires refused to overturn their decision to end play, citing that specific rule had not been included for the current series.
There are three basic types of bowling: fast, medium pace and spin. Each of these have their sub-classifications, partly dependent on the bowler's arm and to some extent whether the batsman is right-handed or left-handed.


The act was roundly criticized on both sides of the [[Tasman Sea]], with both nations' respective [[Prime Minister]]s castigating the Australian team. Then Prime Minister of New Zealand, [[Robert Muldoon]] called it 'the most disgusting incident I can recall in the history of cricket', and 'it was an act of cowardice and I consider it appropriate that the Australian team were wearing yellow'.<ref>{{Cite news | last = Rowney | first = Jo-Anne | title = The line between gamesmanship and cheating  | newspaper = BBC News Magazine | location = London | language = English | publisher = British Broadcasting Corporation | date = 13 July 2009 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8148183.stm | accessdate = 14 July 2013}}</ref> His Australian counterpart [[Malcolm Fraser]] agreed that it was 'contrary to the traditions of the game'.<ref>{{Cite web | title = The Underarm incident | publisher = Melbourne Cricket Ground | date = 1 February 2009 | url = http://www.mcg.org.au/History/Cricket/Memorable%20Moments/The%20Underarm%20incident.aspx | accessdate = 14 July 2013}}</ref> Veteran cricket commentator Richie Benaud called it 'a disgraceful performance' and 'one of the worst things I have ever seen done on a cricket field'.<ref>{{Cite web | last = Benaud | first = Richie | title = Most disgraceful moment in the history of cricket | publisher = YouTube | date = 1 February 1981 | url = http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K65_spUU05s | format = .flv | accessdate = 14 July 2013}}</ref> Despite this, the Australian Cricket Board took no action against the Chappell brothers. The incident angered many in the cricketing community prompting an immediate change in the laws of cricket.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Frith | first = David | title = Grim prophecy fulfilled | journal = Wisden Cricket Monthly | publisher = John Wisden & Co | location = London | date = March 1981 | url = http://www.cricinfo.com/wcm/content/story/235391.html | issn = 0263-9041 | accessdate = 14 July 2013}}</ref> It was the cause of much anger and consternation of New Zealanders towards Australia, and still casts a shadow over trans-Tasman sporting events. As a result of this match, underarm bowling was banned in all limited over cricket games by the International Cricket Council as 'not within the spirit of the game'. Since the incident, both Greg Chappell and Trevor Chappell have refused to discuss the matter or offer an apology, and the result has never been reviewed, cancelled or altered.
==Underarm bowling==
Underarm bowling is as old as the sport itself. Until the introduction of the roundarm style in the first half of the 19th century, bowling was always performed with an underarm action wherein the bowler's hand is below his waist at the point of delivery. For centuries, bowling was performed exactly as in [[bowls]] because, depending on the pace of delivery, the ball was rolled (slow), skimmed (fast) or trundled (medium pace) along the ground with minimal bounce. Despite the variations in pace, the basic action was essentially the same and there are surviving illustrations from the first half of the eighteenth century which depict the bowler with one knee bent forward and his bowling hand close to the ground, while the ball is bowled towards a batsman armed with a bat shaped something like a large hockey stick and guarding a two-stump wicket.
 
In the early 1760s, cricket was revolutionised by the introduction of pitched delivery bowling. The bouncing ball (one bounce only) was an evolutionary change and has been described as the event that took cricket out of its "pioneering phase" into what may be termed its "pre-modern phase" (i.e., which ended when overarm bowling ushered in the modern game in 1864) and effectively created a different code of cricket, just as there are now two different codes of [[rugby football]]. By 1772, when the completion of detailed scorecards became commonplace, the pitched delivery was established practice and, in response to it, the modern straight bat had been invented, the hockey stick shape of bat being of little or no use against a bouncing ball.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/cricket/ladstolords/1751.html |title=From Lads to Lord's: 1751 – 1760 |date=10 October 2012 |publisher= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010153249/http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/cricket/ladstolords/1751.html |archivedate=10 October 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
 
Underarm was largely superseded by roundarm from the late 1820s onward and then almost totally after overarm was legalised in 1864. Underarm prevailed in the days of rudimentary pitch preparation because the ball did not run smoothly over the uneven surface and batsmen could easily be deceived by deflections off the rough. As better pitches with level surfaces became common, greater bounce became a necessity for the bowlers and so the game evolved through the bowling styles. By the 1920s, underarm was virtually extinct in the first-class game though there have been isolated instances of its usage, generally by non-bowlers called on to try something different, or for a bit of fun, when a match was in a stalemate situation.
 
==Roundarm bowling==
It is believed that roundarm was probably devised by [[Tom Walker]] in the 1790s after he realised that he could generate more bounce and pace off the pitch if he bowled with his arm away from his body. It is uncertain if he tried the style in competitive matches but he would certainly have been no-balled and it appears that he stuck to his usual underarm lobs until he retired. [[John Willes]] was more determined to introduce the style and adapted it so that his arm came through at shoulder height, but he was unsuccessful in his attempts to use it in matches and eventually quit the sport in disgust. Willes had shaken the cricket establishment, though, because ''[[The Laws of Cricket]]'' were amended in 1816 to prohibit roundarm:
 
{{quotation|The ball must be bowled (not thrown or jerked), and be delivered underhand, with the hand below the elbow. But if the ball be jerked, or the arm extended from the body horizontally, and any part of the hand be uppermost, or the hand horizontally extended when the ball is delivered, the Umpires shall call, "No Ball".}}
 
Willes gave up his unequal struggle in 1822, but this was just when other leading players became seriously interested. None more so than the [[Sussex (cricket)|Sussex]] bowlers [[William Lillywhite]] and [[Jem Broadbridge]]. In 1827, three trial matches were arranged between Sussex and a Rest of England team. These were inconclusive and the controversy rumbled on. In 1828, Law 10 was amended so that the bowler's hand could be raised as high as the elbow (Walker's original method), but Lillywhite, Broadbridge and others continued to bowl at shoulder height and, most of the time, the umpires didn't no-ball them. In 1835, roundarm was legalised with Law 10 amended to read: "if the hand be above the shoulder in the delivery, the umpire must call No Ball".
 
Underarm was not completely superseded by roundarm and both styles were in evidence through the middle years of the nineteenth century, sometimes called the "roundarm era". Noted roundarm bowlers were Lillywhite, Broadbridge, [[Alfred Mynn]] and [[John Jackson]]. [[W. G. Grace]] learned how to bowl by using a roundarm style and, even though overarm was legalised just before his first-class career began, he never adapted and bowled roundarm for the next forty-odd years until he retired. Roundarm had virtually disappeared from first-class cricket by the beginning of the twentieth century but it has been revived in the 21st century by the Sri Lankan fast bowler [[Lasith Malinga]].
 
==Overarm bowling==
An overarm delivery is simply one in which the bowler's arm is above shoulder height. Having won the roundarm argument, it was only a matter of time before the bowler's would raise their arms even higher. Law 10 on roundarm was reinforced in 1845 by a codicil that removed any benefit of the doubt from the bowler and it was entirely up to the umpire to decide if the shoulder height limitation had been breached. Finally, in a match at [[Kennington Oval]] between [[Surrey (cricket)|Surrey]] and an [[All-England (cricket)|All-England]] team, [[Ned Willsher]] bowled an entire over using an overarm action and all six deliveries were no-balled by umpire [[John Lillywhite]], the son of William Lillywhite. Willsher left the field followed by all his fellow-professionals and play resumed after Lillywhite stood aside and was replaced by another umpire. This time, Law 10 was amended with relative haste and overarm was legalised from the beginning of the 1864 season. Law 10, as then written, stipulated that the bowler may bring his arm through at any height to complete his delivery providing it was straight and the ball was not thrown.
 
==Bowling styles and classifications==
There are a dozen or more designated bowling categories all dependent on the bowler's hand, his speed and how he uses the ball. Genuine fast bowlers, often called "pacemen", can deliver the ball at speeds greater than 90 mph. Even a so-called slow bowler delivers at over 40 mph, while a medium-pacer is somewhere in the 60 to 70 mph range. Pace bowlers who are below 90 mph are usually called "fast medium" and they tend to rely on movement of the ball off the seam rather than sheer speed.
 
Spin bowlers are sub-divided into finger spinners and wrist spinners. A right arm spinner who uses his fingers is called an off break bowler because, on pitching, the ball breaks from the off side of the pitch towards the leg side (if the batsman is right-handed). A right arm spinner with a wrist action is called a leg break bowler because the ball breaks from the leg side to the off side (again if a right-handed batsman). A "googly" is a ball bowled by a leg spinner which breaks from off to leg and is hence known as a "wrong 'un" in Australia.
 
Left arm spinners are either orthodox (fingers) or unorthodox (wrist). The orthodox left-arm action cause the ball to break from right to left, which is leg to off if the batsman is right-handed. The unorthodox wrist action, which is widely known as a "chinaman", has a left to right break.
 
The shorthand bowling classifications used by ''Playfair'' and other sources are:<ref>Playfair 2018, page 86.</ref>
* LB – right-arm leg break
* LBG – right-arm leg break and googly
* LF – left-arm fast
* LFM – left-arm fast medium
* LM – left-arm medium
* OB – right-arm off break
* RF – right-arm fast
* RFM – right-arm fast medium
* RM – right-arm medium
* SLA – slow left-arm orthodox
* SLC – slow left-arm chinaman (unorthodox)
 
==Underarm incident in 1981==
Underarm was dramatically reintroduced on 1 February 1981 when, in the final of the Benson & Hedges World Series Cup at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], the Australian bowler Trevor Chappell, under orders from his captain and brother Greg Chappell, rolled the final ball all along the ground to prevent New Zealand batsman Brian McKechnie from hitting it for the six runs that New Zealand needed to tie the match. The incident had widespread repercussions, being condemned as gamesmanship and sharp practice. It was not actually a "[[Glossary of cricket#No ball|no ball]]" because an underarm action was legal at the time.<ref>[http://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/155265.html New Zealanders in Australia, 1980–81]. ''Wisden'' Online (1981).</ref>
 
As a direct result of the incident, the [[International Cricket Council]] ruled that underarm bowling in [[limited overs cricket]] is "not within the spirit of the game". This necessitated a change in ''[[The Laws of Cricket]]'' and Law 21.1.2 now states that "underarm bowling shall not be permitted except by special agreement before the match".<ref>[https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/no-ball Law 21 – No Ball]. MCC (2018).</ref>


==Notes==
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* Marylebone Cricket Club: ''[https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws The Laws]''. MCC, ''The Laws of Cricket'' (2017).
* Oxford University: ''Oxford English Dictionary, 11th Edition''. Oxford University Press (2004).
* Playfair: ''Playfair Cricket Annual''. Playfair Books Ltd (1948 to present).
* Swanton, E. W. (editor): ''Barclays World of Cricket, 3rd edition''. Willow Books (1986).
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In the sport of cricket, the act of bowling is delivery of the ball by the bowler from his end of the pitch to the other, where the wicket is defended by the striker armed with a bat.[1] In a dictionary definition, "to bowl" is to "propel the ball towards the wicket for the batsman to attempt to hit".[2] Delivery must be done fairly in accordance with The Laws of Cricket.

Originally, all bowling was done with an underarm action and, depending on the speed of delivery, the ball was rolled, skimmed or trundled along the ground with minimal bounce. To counter this, the batsman used a bat shaped like a modern hockey stick. In about 1760, the pitched delivery was introduced (still with an underarm action) whereby the ball is "given air" in order to obtain significant bounce. It is believed that the aim has always been to bounce the ball once only and bowlers began to experiment with line, length and trajectory. The hockey stick shape was no use against the bouncing and the straight bat was invented. Roundarm bowling, performed with an outward horizontal swing of the arm, was devised sometime around the end of the eighteenth century and, in the 1820s, a growing campaign called the "March of Intellect" was mounted to have the style legalised. Amid fierce controversy, this was achieved in 1835 and roundarm became the predominant style of bowling until 1864 when the modern overarm style was legalised, again controversially.

There are three basic types of bowling: fast, medium pace and spin. Each of these have their sub-classifications, partly dependent on the bowler's arm and to some extent whether the batsman is right-handed or left-handed.

Underarm bowling

Underarm bowling is as old as the sport itself. Until the introduction of the roundarm style in the first half of the 19th century, bowling was always performed with an underarm action wherein the bowler's hand is below his waist at the point of delivery. For centuries, bowling was performed exactly as in bowls because, depending on the pace of delivery, the ball was rolled (slow), skimmed (fast) or trundled (medium pace) along the ground with minimal bounce. Despite the variations in pace, the basic action was essentially the same and there are surviving illustrations from the first half of the eighteenth century which depict the bowler with one knee bent forward and his bowling hand close to the ground, while the ball is bowled towards a batsman armed with a bat shaped something like a large hockey stick and guarding a two-stump wicket.

In the early 1760s, cricket was revolutionised by the introduction of pitched delivery bowling. The bouncing ball (one bounce only) was an evolutionary change and has been described as the event that took cricket out of its "pioneering phase" into what may be termed its "pre-modern phase" (i.e., which ended when overarm bowling ushered in the modern game in 1864) and effectively created a different code of cricket, just as there are now two different codes of rugby football. By 1772, when the completion of detailed scorecards became commonplace, the pitched delivery was established practice and, in response to it, the modern straight bat had been invented, the hockey stick shape of bat being of little or no use against a bouncing ball.[3]

Underarm was largely superseded by roundarm from the late 1820s onward and then almost totally after overarm was legalised in 1864. Underarm prevailed in the days of rudimentary pitch preparation because the ball did not run smoothly over the uneven surface and batsmen could easily be deceived by deflections off the rough. As better pitches with level surfaces became common, greater bounce became a necessity for the bowlers and so the game evolved through the bowling styles. By the 1920s, underarm was virtually extinct in the first-class game though there have been isolated instances of its usage, generally by non-bowlers called on to try something different, or for a bit of fun, when a match was in a stalemate situation.

Roundarm bowling

It is believed that roundarm was probably devised by Tom Walker in the 1790s after he realised that he could generate more bounce and pace off the pitch if he bowled with his arm away from his body. It is uncertain if he tried the style in competitive matches but he would certainly have been no-balled and it appears that he stuck to his usual underarm lobs until he retired. John Willes was more determined to introduce the style and adapted it so that his arm came through at shoulder height, but he was unsuccessful in his attempts to use it in matches and eventually quit the sport in disgust. Willes had shaken the cricket establishment, though, because The Laws of Cricket were amended in 1816 to prohibit roundarm:

The ball must be bowled (not thrown or jerked), and be delivered underhand, with the hand below the elbow. But if the ball be jerked, or the arm extended from the body horizontally, and any part of the hand be uppermost, or the hand horizontally extended when the ball is delivered, the Umpires shall call, "No Ball".

Willes gave up his unequal struggle in 1822, but this was just when other leading players became seriously interested. None more so than the Sussex bowlers William Lillywhite and Jem Broadbridge. In 1827, three trial matches were arranged between Sussex and a Rest of England team. These were inconclusive and the controversy rumbled on. In 1828, Law 10 was amended so that the bowler's hand could be raised as high as the elbow (Walker's original method), but Lillywhite, Broadbridge and others continued to bowl at shoulder height and, most of the time, the umpires didn't no-ball them. In 1835, roundarm was legalised with Law 10 amended to read: "if the hand be above the shoulder in the delivery, the umpire must call No Ball".

Underarm was not completely superseded by roundarm and both styles were in evidence through the middle years of the nineteenth century, sometimes called the "roundarm era". Noted roundarm bowlers were Lillywhite, Broadbridge, Alfred Mynn and John Jackson. W. G. Grace learned how to bowl by using a roundarm style and, even though overarm was legalised just before his first-class career began, he never adapted and bowled roundarm for the next forty-odd years until he retired. Roundarm had virtually disappeared from first-class cricket by the beginning of the twentieth century but it has been revived in the 21st century by the Sri Lankan fast bowler Lasith Malinga.

Overarm bowling

An overarm delivery is simply one in which the bowler's arm is above shoulder height. Having won the roundarm argument, it was only a matter of time before the bowler's would raise their arms even higher. Law 10 on roundarm was reinforced in 1845 by a codicil that removed any benefit of the doubt from the bowler and it was entirely up to the umpire to decide if the shoulder height limitation had been breached. Finally, in a match at Kennington Oval between Surrey and an All-England team, Ned Willsher bowled an entire over using an overarm action and all six deliveries were no-balled by umpire John Lillywhite, the son of William Lillywhite. Willsher left the field followed by all his fellow-professionals and play resumed after Lillywhite stood aside and was replaced by another umpire. This time, Law 10 was amended with relative haste and overarm was legalised from the beginning of the 1864 season. Law 10, as then written, stipulated that the bowler may bring his arm through at any height to complete his delivery providing it was straight and the ball was not thrown.

Bowling styles and classifications

There are a dozen or more designated bowling categories all dependent on the bowler's hand, his speed and how he uses the ball. Genuine fast bowlers, often called "pacemen", can deliver the ball at speeds greater than 90 mph. Even a so-called slow bowler delivers at over 40 mph, while a medium-pacer is somewhere in the 60 to 70 mph range. Pace bowlers who are below 90 mph are usually called "fast medium" and they tend to rely on movement of the ball off the seam rather than sheer speed.

Spin bowlers are sub-divided into finger spinners and wrist spinners. A right arm spinner who uses his fingers is called an off break bowler because, on pitching, the ball breaks from the off side of the pitch towards the leg side (if the batsman is right-handed). A right arm spinner with a wrist action is called a leg break bowler because the ball breaks from the leg side to the off side (again if a right-handed batsman). A "googly" is a ball bowled by a leg spinner which breaks from off to leg and is hence known as a "wrong 'un" in Australia.

Left arm spinners are either orthodox (fingers) or unorthodox (wrist). The orthodox left-arm action cause the ball to break from right to left, which is leg to off if the batsman is right-handed. The unorthodox wrist action, which is widely known as a "chinaman", has a left to right break.

The shorthand bowling classifications used by Playfair and other sources are:[4]

  • LB – right-arm leg break
  • LBG – right-arm leg break and googly
  • LF – left-arm fast
  • LFM – left-arm fast medium
  • LM – left-arm medium
  • OB – right-arm off break
  • RF – right-arm fast
  • RFM – right-arm fast medium
  • RM – right-arm medium
  • SLA – slow left-arm orthodox
  • SLC – slow left-arm chinaman (unorthodox)

Underarm incident in 1981

Underarm was dramatically reintroduced on 1 February 1981 when, in the final of the Benson & Hedges World Series Cup at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, the Australian bowler Trevor Chappell, under orders from his captain and brother Greg Chappell, rolled the final ball all along the ground to prevent New Zealand batsman Brian McKechnie from hitting it for the six runs that New Zealand needed to tie the match. The incident had widespread repercussions, being condemned as gamesmanship and sharp practice. It was not actually a "no ball" because an underarm action was legal at the time.[5]

As a direct result of the incident, the International Cricket Council ruled that underarm bowling in limited overs cricket is "not within the spirit of the game". This necessitated a change in The Laws of Cricket and Law 21.1.2 now states that "underarm bowling shall not be permitted except by special agreement before the match".[6]

Notes

  1. Barclay's, page 694.
  2. Oxford, page 165.
  3. From Lads to Lord's: 1751 – 1760 (10 October 2012). Archived from the original on 10 October 2012.
  4. Playfair 2018, page 86.
  5. New Zealanders in Australia, 1980–81. Wisden Online (1981).
  6. Law 21 – No Ball. MCC (2018).

Bibliography

  • Marylebone Cricket Club: The Laws. MCC, The Laws of Cricket (2017).
  • Oxford University: Oxford English Dictionary, 11th Edition. Oxford University Press (2004).
  • Playfair: Playfair Cricket Annual. Playfair Books Ltd (1948 to present).
  • Swanton, E. W. (editor): Barclays World of Cricket, 3rd edition. Willow Books (1986).