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'''[[Irish language|Irish]] [[orthography]]''' has evolved over many centuries, since [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]] was first written down in the [[Latin alphabet]] in about the sixth century AD. Prior to that, [[Primitive Irish language|Primitive Irish]] was written in [[Ogham]]. Irish spelling is mainly based on etymological considerations, very much like [[English orthography]], although a [[spelling reform]] in the mid-20th century simplified the relationship between spelling and pronunciation somewhat.
{{NOINDEX}}
 
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There are three dialects of spoken Irish: [[Ulster Irish|Ulster]] (now predominantly in [[County Donegal]]), [[Connacht Irish|Connacht]] (Counties [[County Mayo|Mayo]] and [[County Galway|Galway]]), and [[Munster Irish|Munster]] (Counties [[County Kerry|Kerry]], [[County Cork|Cork]], and [[County Waterford|Waterford]]). Some spelling conventions are common to all the dialects, while others vary from dialect to dialect. In addition, individual words may have in any given dialect a pronunciation that is not reflected by the spelling (rather like the English word ''colonel'', whose spelling denotes its pronunciation quite poorly).
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==Alphabet==
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[[Image:Irish script.gif|thumb|right|330px| A sample of [[Gaelic script]].]]
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Prior to the 20th century Irish was usually written using the [[uncial]] [[Gaelic script]]. The uncial alphabet, together with letter name pronunciations and [[Irish initial mutations|lenited]] letters is shown below.
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Use of the uncial script is today almost entirely restricted to decorative and/or self-consciously traditional contexts. The dot above the lenited letter is usually substituted with a following ''h'' in the standard Roman alphabet. The only other use of ''h'' Irish is for vowel-initial words after certain [[clitic|proclitics]] (e.g. ''go '''h'''Éireann'' 'to Ireland) and for words of foreign derivation such as ''hata'' 'hat'.
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The alphabet now used for writing the Irish language consists of the following letters, written in [[antiqua]]:
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:'''a á b c d e é f g h i í l m n o ó p r s t u ú''';
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Modern loanwords also make use of '''j k q v w x y z'''. Of these, '''j''' and '''v''' are the most common. The letters' names are spelt out thus:
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:'''á bé cé dé é eif gé héis í eil eim ein ó pé ear eas té ú'''
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:along with '''jé cá cú vé wae eacs yé zae'''.
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Tree names were once popularly used to name the letters. Tradition taught that they all derived from the names of the [[Ogham]] letters, though it is now known that only some of the earliest Ogham letters were named for trees.
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:'''ailm''' (white fir), '''beith''' (birch), '''coll''' (hazel), '''dair''' (oak), '''edad/eabhadh''' (poplar), '''fern/fearn''' (alder), '''gath/gort''' (ivy), '''uath''' (hawthorn), '''idad/íodhadh''' (yew), '''luis''' (rowan), '''muin''' (vine), '''nin/nion''' (ash), '''onn''' (gorse), '''peith''' (dwarf alder), '''ruis''' (holander), '''sail''' (willow), '''tinne/teithne''' (holly), '''úr''' (heather)
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Although the uncial script remained common until the mid-20th century, efforts to introduce antiqua began much earlier. [[Theobald Stapleton]]'s 1639 catechism was printed in antiqua, and also introduced simplified spellings such as ''suí'' for ''suidhe'' and ''uafás'' for ''uathbhás'', though these did not become standard for another 300 years.
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==Consonants==
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The consonant letters generally correspond to the consonant phonemes as shown in this table. See [[Irish phonology]] for an explanation of the symbols used and [[Irish initial mutations]] for an explanation of eclipsis. In most cases, consonants are 'broad' ([[velarization|velarized]]) when the nearest vowel letter is one of '''a, o, u''' and 'slender' ([[palatalization|palatalized]]) when the nearest vowel letter is one of '''e, i'''.
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{| class='wikitable'
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! colspan=2 | Letter(s)
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! Phoneme(s)
*[[:Category:Inactive Engineering Authors]]
! Examples 
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|-
*[[:Category:Inactive Health Sciences Authors]]
| rowspan=2 | '''b'''
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| broad
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| /bˠ/
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| bain /bˠanʲ/ 'take' (imper.), scuab /sˠkuəbˠ/ 'broom'
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|-
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| slender
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| /bʲ/
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| béal /bʲeːɫ̪/ 'mouth', cnáib /kn̪ˠaːbʲ/ 'hemp'
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|-
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| rowspan=3 |  '''bh'''
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| broad
| /w/
| bhain /wanʲ/ 'took', ábhar /ˈaːwəɾˠ/ 'material', Bhairbre /ˈwaɾʲəbʲɾʲə/ 'Barbara' (genitive), tábhachtach /ˈt̪ˠaːwəxtəx/ 'important', dubhaigh /ˈd̪ˠʊwiː/ 'blacken' (imper.), scríobh /ʃcrʲiːw/ 'wrote', taobh /t̪ˠiːw/ 'side', dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ 'black', gabh /gaw/ 'get' (imper.) 
|-
| slender
| /vʲ/ 
| bhéal /vʲeːɫ̪/ 'mouth' (lenited), cuibhreann /ˈkɪvʲɾʲən̪ˠ/ 'common table', aibhneacha /ˈavʲnʲəxə/ 'rivers', sibh /ʃɪvʲ/ 'you' (pl.)
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Vowels|vowel chart]] for '''abh, eabh, obh''' 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''bhf'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''f-''')</small>
| broad
| /w/
| bhfuinneog /ˈwɪnʲoːg/ 'window' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /vʲ/
| bhfíon /vʲiːn̪ˠ/ 'wine' (eclipsed) 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''bp'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''p-''')</small>
| broad
| /bˠ/
| bpoll /bˠoːɫ̪/ 'hole' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /bʲ/
| bpríosún /ˈbʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'prison' (eclipsed) 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''c'''
| broad
| /k/
| cáis /kaːʃ/ 'cheese', mac /mˠak/ 'son'
|-
| slender
| /c/
| ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ 'question', mic /mʲɪc/ 'sons'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ch'''
| broad<br /><small>(Always broad before '''t'''.)</small>
| /x/
| cháis /xaːʃ/ 'cheese' (lenited), taoiseach /ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx/ 'chieftain' (also the term for the [[Taoiseach|Prime Minister of Ireland]]), boichte /bˠɔxtʲə/ 'poorer' 
|-
| slender
| /ç/<br />/h/ between vowels 
| cheist /çɛʃtʲ/ 'question' (lenited), deich /dʲɛç/ 'ten'<br />oíche /ˈiːhə/ 'night'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''d'''
| broad
| /d̪ˠ/
| dorn /d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ 'fist', nead /nʲad̪ˠ/ 'nest'
|-
| slender
| /dʲ/
| dearg /dʲaɾˠəg/ 'red', cuid /kɪdʲ/ 'part'
|-
| rowspan='3' | '''dh'''
| broad
| /ɣ/ word-initially<br />Silent after a [[vowel length|long vowel]]  
| dhorn /ɣoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ 'fist' (lenited)<br />ádh /aː/ 'luck'
|-
| slender
| /j/ 
| dhearg /ˈjaɾˠəg/ 'red' (lenited), fáidh /fˠaːj/ 'prophet' 
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Vowels|vowel chart]] for '''adh, aidh, eadh, eidh, idh, oidh, odh'''. See [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]] for '''-dh''' at the end of verbs. 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''dt'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''t-''')</small>
| broad
| /d̪ˠ/
| dtaisce /ˈd̪ˠaʃcə/ 'treasure' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /dʲ/
| dtír /dʲiːɾʲ/ 'country' (eclipsed)
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''f'''
| broad
| /fˠ/
| fós /fˠoːsˠ/ 'still', graf /gɾˠafˠ/ 'graph'
|-
| slender
| /fʲ/
| fíon /fʲiːn̪ˠ/ 'wine', stuif /sˠt̪ˠɪfʲ/ 'stuff'
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]] for '''-f-''' in future and conditional tenses
|-
| colspan=2 | '''fh''' <small>(lenition of '''f-''')</small>
| silent
| fhuinneog /ˈɪnʲoːg/ 'window' (lenited), fhíon /iːn̪ˠ/ 'wine' (lenited) 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''g'''
| broad
| /g/
| gasúr /ˈgasˠuːɾˠ/ 'boy', bog /bˠɔg/ 'soft'
|-
| slender
| /ɟ/
| geata /ˈɟat̪ˠə/ 'gate', carraig /ˈkaɾˠəɟ/ 'rock'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''gc'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''c-''')</small>
| broad
| /g/
| gcáis /gaːʃ/ 'cheese' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /ɟ/
| gceist /ɟɛʃtʲ/ 'question' (eclipsed)
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''gh'''
| broad
| /ɣ/ (word-initially)<br />silent after a long vowel
| ghasúr /ˈɣasˠuːɾˠ/ 'boy' (lenited)<br />Eoghan /ˈoːən̪ˠ/ 'Owen'
|-
| slender
| /j/ 
| gheata /ˈjat̪ˠə/ 'gate' (lenited), dóigh /d̪ˠoːj/ 'way, manner'
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Vowels|vowel chart]] for '''agh, aigh, eigh, igh, ogh, oigh'''. See [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]] for '''-(a)igh''' at the end of verbs. 
|-
| colspan=2 | '''h'''
| /h/
| hata /ˈhat̪ˠə/ 'hat', na héisc /nə heːʃc/ 'the fish' (plural) 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''l, ll'''
| broad
| /ɫ̪/
| luí /ɫ̪iː/ 'lying (down)', poll /poːɫ̪/ 'hole'
|-
| slender
| /lʲ/
| leisciúil /ˈlʲɛʃcuːlʲ/ 'lazy', coill /kailʲ/ 'woods'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''m'''
| broad
| /mˠ/
| mór /mˠoːɾˠ/ 'big', am /aːmˠ/ 'time'
|-
| slender
| /mʲ/
| milis /ˈmʲilʲəʃ/ 'sweet', im /iːmʲ/ 'butter'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''mb'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''b-''')</small>
| broad
| /mˠ/
| mbaineann /ˈmˠanʲən̪ˠ/ 'takes' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /mʲ/
| mbéal /mʲeːɫ̪/ 'mouth' (eclipsed) 
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''mh'''
| (broad)
| /w/
| mhór /woːɾˠ/ 'big' (lenited), lámha /ˈɫ̪aːwə/ 'hands', léamh /lʲeːw/ 'reading'
|-
| (slender)
| /vʲ/
| mhilis /ˈvʲilʲəʃ/ 'sweet' (lenited), uimhir /ˈɪvʲəɾʲ/ 'number', nimh /nʲɪvʲ/ 'poison'
|-
| colspan=3 | See [[#Vowels|vowel chart]] for '''amh, eamh, omh''' 
|-
| rowspan=2| '''n, nn'''
| broad
| /n̪ˠ/
| naoi /n̪ˠiː/ 'nine', ceann /caːn̪ˠ/ 'head'
|-
| slender
| /nʲ/
| neart /nʲaɾˠt̪ˠ/ 'strength', tinneas /ˈtʲɪnʲəsˠ/ 'illness'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''nc'''
| broad
| /ŋk/
| ancaire /ˈaŋkəɾʲə/ 'anchor'
|-
| slender
| /ɲc/
| rinc /ɾˠɪɲc/ 'dance'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''nd'''<br /><small>(eclipsis of '''d-''')</small>
| broad
| /n̪ˠ/
| ndorn /n̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ 'fist' (eclipsed)
|-
| slender
| /nʲ/
| ndearg /ˈnʲaɾˠəg/ 'red' (eclipsed) 
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''ng'''
| broad
| /ŋ/ word-initially <small>(eclipsis of '''g-''') </small><br />/ŋg/ word-internally and finally
| ngasúr /ˈŋasˠuːɾˠ/ 'boy' (eclipsed)<br />long /ɫ̪uːŋg/ 'ship', teanga /ˈtʲaŋgə/ 'tongue'
|-
| rowspan=2 | slender
| /ɲ/ word-initially <small>(eclipsis of '''g-''') </small><br />/ɲɟ/ word-internally and finally
| ngeata /ˈɲat̪ˠə/ 'gate' (eclipsed)<br />cuing /kɪɲɟ/ 'yoke', ingear /ˈɪɲɟəɾˠ/ 'vertical'
|-
| /nʲ/ in final unstressed '''-ing''' 
| scilling /ˈʃcilʲənʲ/ 'shilling'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''p'''
| broad
| /pˠ/
| poll /pˠoːɫ̪/ 'hole', stop /sˠt̪ˠɔpˠ/ 'stop'
|-
| slender
| /pʲ/
| príosún /ˈpʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'prison', truip /t̪ˠɾˠɪpʲ/ 'trip'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ph'''
| broad
| /fˠ/
| pholl /fˠoːɫ̪ʲ/ 'hole' (lenited)
|-
| slender
| /fʲ/
| phríosún /ˈfʲɾʲiːsˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'prison' (lenited) 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''r'''
| broad<br /><small>(Always broad word-initially. Always broad in '''rt, rth, rd, rn, rl, rs, sr'''.)</small>
| /ɾˠ/
| rí /ɾˠiː/ 'king', cuairt /kuəɾˠtʲ/ 'visit', oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ 'east', airde /aːɾˠdʲə/ 'height', coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠnʲeːɫ̪/ 'corner', duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/ 'stony beach', sreang /sˠɾˠaŋg/ 'string'
|-
| slender
| /rʲ/
| tirim /ˈtʲɪɾʲəmʲ/ 'dry'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''rr'''
| /ɾˠ/
| barr /baːɾˠ/ 'tip, point', cairr /kaːɾˠ/ 'car' (genitive)
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''s'''
| broad
| /sˠ/<br /><small>(Always broad word-initially before '''m, p, r'''.)</small>
| Sasana /ˈsˠasˠən̪ˠə/ 'England', tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ 'beginning', speal /sˠpʲaɫ̪/ 'scythe', sméar /sˠmʲeːɾˠ/ 'blackberry', sreang /sˠɾˠaŋg/ 'string'
|-
| slender
| /ʃ/
| sean /ʃan̪ˠ/ 'old', cáis /kaːʃ/ 'cheese'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''sh'''
| broad
| /h/
| Shasana /ˈhasˠən̪ˠə/ 'England' (lenited) 
|-
| slender
| /h/<br />/ç/ before /aː, oː, u(ː)/ 
| shean /han̪ˠ/ 'old' (lenited)<br />Sheáin /çaːnʲ/ 'John' (genitive), sheol /çoːɫ̪/ 'sailed', shiúil /çuːlʲ/ 'walked', shiopa /ˈçʊpˠə/ 'shop' (lenited)
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''t'''
| broad
| /t̪ˠ/
| taisce /ˈt̪ˠaʃcə/ 'treasure', ceart /caɾˠt̪ˠ/ 'correct'
|-
| slender
| /tʲ/
| tír /tʲiːɾʲ/ 'country', beirt /bʲɛɾˠtʲ/ 'two (people)'
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]] for '''-t-''' in verbal adjectives 
|-
| rowspan='4' | '''th'''
| broad
| /h/
| thaisce /ˈhaʃcə/ 'treasure' (lenited), athair /ˈahəɾʲ/ 'father'
|-
| slender
| /h/<br />/ç/ when lenited from /tʲaː-, tʲoː-, tʲu(ː)-/ 
| theanga /ˈhaŋgə/ 'tongue' (lenited)<br />theann /çaːn̪ˠ/ 'tight' (lenited), theocht /çoːxt̪ˠ/ 'heat' (lenited), thiúilip /ˈçuːlʲəpʲ/ 'tulip' (lenited), thiocfadh /ˈçʊkəx/ 'would come', thiubh /çʊw/ 'thick' (lenited) 
|-
| colspan=2 | Silent at the end of a syllable 
| bláth /bˠɫ̪aː/ 'blossom', cith /cɪ/ 'shower', cothrom /ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ/ 'equal' 
|-
| colspan=3 |  See [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]] for '''-th-''' in verbal adjectives 
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ts'''<br /><small>(special lenition of '''s-''' after '''an''' 'the')</small>
| broad
| /t̪ˠ/
| an tsolais /ən̪ˠ ˈt̪ˠɔɫ̪əʃ/ 'of the light'
|-
| slender
| /tʲ/
| an tSín /ənʲ tʲiːnʲ/ 'China'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''v'''
| broad
| /w/
| vóta /ˈwoːt̪ˠə/ 'vote'
|-
| slender
| /vʲ/
| veidhlín /ˈvʲailʲiːnʲ/ 'violin'
|}
 
==Vowels==
The following chart indicates how written vowels are ''generally'' pronounced.  Each dialect has certain divergences from this general scheme.
{| class='wikitable'
! colspan=2 | Letter(s)
! Phoneme
! Examples
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''a'''
| rowspan=2 | stressed
| /a/
| fan /fˠan̪ˠ/ 'stay' (imper.)
|-
| /aː/ before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, nn, rr'''<br />before word-final '''m'''
| tarlú /ˈt̪ˠaːɾˠɫ̪uː/ 'happening', carnán /ˈkaːɾˠn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ '(small) heap', garda /ˈgaːɾˠd̪ˠə/ 'policeman'<br />mall /mˠaːɫ̪/ 'slow, late', ann /aːn̪ˠ/ 'there', barr /bˠaːɾˠ/ 'tip, point'<br />am /aːmˠ/ 'time'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| ólann /ˈoːɫ̪ən̪ˠ/ 'drink' (present), mála /ˈmˠaːɫ̪ə/ 'bag'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''á'''
| /aː/
| bán /bˠaːn̪ˠ/ 'white'
|-
| '''abh(a(i))'''
| stressed
| /au/
| abhainn /aunʲ/ 'river', cabhrach /ˈkauɾˠəx/ 'helpful'
|-
| '''adh(a(i))'''
| stressed
| /ai/
| adhairt /aiɾˠtʲ/ 'pillow', Tadhg /t̪ˠaig/ (man's name)
|-
| rowspan='2' | '''adh'''
| unstressed
| /ə/
| margadh /ˈmˠaɾˠəgə/ 'market'
|-
| colspan='3' | See also [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]]  
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ae(i)'''
| /eː/
| Gaelach /ˈgeːɫ̪əx/ 'Gaelic', Gaeilge /ˈgeːlʲɟə/ 'Irish (language)'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''agh(a(i))'''
| /ai/
| aghaidh /aij/ 'face', saghsanna /ˈsˠaisˠən̪ˠə/ 'sorts, kinds'
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''ai'''
| rowspan=3 | stressed
| /a/
| baile /ˈbˠalʲə/ 'home'
|-
|  /aː/ before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, nn, rr'''
|  airne /aːɾˠnʲə/ 'sloe'<br />caillte /ˈkaːlʲtʲə/ 'lost, ruined', crainn /kɾˠaːnʲ/ 'trees'
|-
| /ɛ/ before '''bh''' in a handful of words
| raibh /ɾˠɛvʲ/ 'was' (dependent), daibhir /ˈd̪ˠɛvəɾʲ/ 'poor', saibhir /ˈsˠɛvʲərʲ/ 'rich'
|-
|  unstressed
|  /ə/
|  eolais /ˈoːɫ̪əʃ/ 'knowledge' (genitive)
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ái'''
| /aː/
| dáil /d̪ˠaːlʲ/ 'assembly', gabháil /ˈgawaːlʲ/ 'taking'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''aí'''
| /iː/
| maígh /mˠiːj/ 'claim' (imper.), gutaí /ˈgʊt̪ˠiː/ 'vowels'
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''aidh, aigh'''
| stressed
| /ai/
| aidhm /aimʲ/ 'aim', saighdiúir /ˈsˠaidʲuːrʲ/ 'soldier'
|-
| unstressed
| /iː/
| cleachtaidh /ˈclʲaxt̪ˠiː/ 'practice' (genitive), bacaigh /ˈbˠakiː/ 'beggar' (genitive)
|-
| colspan='3' |  See also [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]]
|-
| colspan=2 | '''aío'''
| /iː/
| naíonán /ˈn̪ˠiːn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ 'infant', beannaíonn /ˈbʲan̪ˠiːn̪ˠ/ 'blesses'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''amh(a(i))'''
| /au/
| Samhain /sˠaunʲ/ 'November', amhantar /ˈaun̪ˠt̪ˠəɾˠ/ 'venture', ramhraigh /ˈɾˠauɾˠiː/ 'fattened'
|-
| colspan=2 rowspan='2' | '''ao'''
| /iː/
| saol /sˠiːɫ̪/ 'life, world'
|-
| colspan=2 | /eː/ in the word aon /eːn̪ˠ/ 'one' and its derivatives, e.g. aontacht /ˈeːn̪ˠt̪ˠəxt̪ˠ/ 'union', na Stáit Aontaithe /n̪ˠə sˠt̪ˠaːtʲ ˈeːn̪ˠt̪ˠəhə/ 'the United States'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''aoi'''
| /iː/
| gaois /giːʃ/ 'shrewdness'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''e'''
| stressed
| /ɛ/
| te /tʲɛ/ 'hot'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/ 
| míle /ˈmʲiːlʲə/ 'thousand'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''é'''
| /eː/
| sé /ʃeː/ 'he'
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''ea'''
| rowspan=3 | stressed
| /a/
| bean /bʲan̪ˠ/ 'woman'
|-
| /aː/ before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, nn, rr'''
| bearna /ˈbʲaːɾˠn̪ˠə/ 'gap'<br />feall /fʲaːɫ̪/ 'treachery', feanntach /ˈfʲaːn̪ˠt̪ˠəx/ 'severe'
|-
| colspan=2 | /ɔ/ in the word ''beag'' /bʲɔg/ 'small'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/ 
| seisean /ˈʃɛʃən̪ˠ/ 'he' (emph.) 
|-
| colspan=2 | '''éa'''
| /eː/
| déanamh /ˈdʲeːn̪ˠəw/ 'doing', buidéal /ˈbˠɪdʲeːɫ̪/ 'bottle'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eá'''
| /aː/
| Seán /ʃaːn̪ˠ/ 'John'<br />caisleán /ˈkaʃlʲaːn̪ˠ/ 'castle'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eabh(a(i))'''
| /au/
| leabhair /lʲauɾʲ/ 'books'<br />Feabhra /ˈfʲauɾˠə/ 'February'
|-
| '''eadh(a(i)'''
| stressed
| /ai/ 
| meadhg /mʲaig/ 'whey'
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''-eadh'''
| unstressed
| /ə/ 
| briseadh /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃə/ 'breaking'
|-
| colspan='3' |  See also [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]]
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eai'''
| /a/
| veain /vʲanʲ/ 'van'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eái'''
| /aː/
| meáin /mʲaːnʲ/ 'middles', caisleáin /ˈkaʃlʲaːnʲ/ 'castles'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eamh(a(i))'''
| /au/
| sleamhain /ʃlʲaunʲ/ 'smooth', leamhnacht /ˈlʲaun̪ˠəxt̪ˠ/ 'new milk'
|-
| rowspan='5' colspan=2 | '''ei'''
| /ɛ/
| ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ 'question'
|-
| /ɪ/ before '''m, mh, n'''
| creimeadh /ˈcɾʲɪmʲə/ 'corrosion, erosion', geimhreadh /ˈɟɪvʲrʲə/ 'winter', seinm /ˈʃɪnʲəmʲ/ 'playing'
|-
| /eː/ before '''rl, rn, rd'''
| eirleach /ˈeːɾˠlʲəx/ 'destruction', ceirnín /ˈceːɾˠnʲiːnʲ/ 'record album', ceird /ceːɾˠdʲ/ 'trade, craft'
|-
| /ai/ before syllable-final '''ll''' 
| feill- /fʲailʲ/ 'exceedingly'
|-
| /iː/ before syllable-final '''nn''' and word-final '''m''' 
| greim /ɟɾʲiːmʲ/ 'grip'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''éi'''
| /eː/
| scéimh /ʃceːvʲ/ 'beauty', páipéir /ˈpˠaːpʲeːɾʲ/ 'papers'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eidh(i/ea), eigh(i/ea)'''
| /ai/ 
| feidhm /fʲaimʲ/ 'function', leigheas /lʲaisˠ/ 'healing'
|-
| colspan=2 rowspan=2 | '''eo'''
| /oː/
| ceol /coːɫ̪/ 'music', baileofar /ˈbˠalʲoːfˠəɾˠ/ 'one will gather'
|-
| colspan=2 | /ɔ/ in the words ''anseo'' /ənʲˈʃɔ/ 'here', ''deoch'' /dʲɔx/ 'a drink', eochair /ˈɔxəɾʲ/ 'a key', and ''seo'' /ʃɔ/ 'this'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''eoi'''
| /oː/
| dreoilín /ˈdʲɾʲoːlʲiːnʲ/ 'wren', baileoimid /ˈbˠalʲoːmʲədʲ/ 'we will gather'
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''i'''
| rowspan=2 | stressed
| /ɪ/
| pic /pʲɪc/ 'pitch', ifreann /ˈɪfʲɾʲən/ 'hell'
|-
| /iː/ before syllable-final '''ll, nn'''<br />before word-final '''m'''
| cill /ciːlʲ/ 'church', cinnte /ˈciːnʲtʲə/ 'sure'<br />im /iːmʲ/ 'butter' 
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| faoistin /ˈfˠiːʃtʲənʲ/ 'confession'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''í'''
| /iː/
| gnímh /ɟnʲiːvʲ/ 'act, deed' (gen.), cailín /ˈkalʲiːnʲ/ 'girl'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ia'''
| /iə/ 
| Diarmaid /dʲiərmədʲ/ 'Dermot'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''iai''' 
| /iə/
| bliain /bʲlʲiənʲ/ 'year'
|-
| rowspan='2' | '''idh, igh'''
| unstressed
| /iː/
| tuillidh /ˈt̪ˠɪlʲiː/ 'addition' (gen.), coiligh /ˈkɛlʲiː/ 'rooster' (gen.)
|-
| colspan='3' |  See also [[#Special pronunciations in verb forms|Special pronunciations in verb forms]]
|-
| rowspan='3' colspan=2 | '''io'''
| /ɪ/ before coronals and '''th'''
| fios /fʲɪsˠ/ 'knowledge', bior /bʲɪɾˠ/ 'spit, spike', cion /cɪn̪ˠ/ 'affection', giota /ˈɟɪt̪ˠə/ 'bit, piece', giodam /ˈɟɪd̪ˠəmˠ/ 'restlessness', friotháil /ˈfʲɾʲɪhaːlʲ/ 'attention'
|-
| /ʊ/ before noncoronals
| siopa /ˈʃʊpˠə/ 'shop', liom /lʲʊmˠ/ 'with me', tiocfaidh /ˈtʲʊkiː/ 'will come', Siobhán /ˈʃʊwaːn̪ˠ/ 'Joan', briogáid /ˈbʲɾʲʊgaːdʲ/ 'brigade', tiomáin /ˈtʲʊmaːnʲ/ 'drive' (imper.), ionga /ˈʊŋgə/ '(finger)nail'
|-
| /iː/ before syllable-final '''nn''' 
| fionn /fʲiːn̪ˠ/ 'light-haired'
|-
| colspan='2' | '''ío'''
| /iː/
| síol /ʃiːɫ̪/ 'seed'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''iu'''
| /ʊ/
| fliuch /fʲlʲʊx/ 'wet'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''iú'''
| /uː/
| siúl /ʃuːɫ̪/ 'walk', bailiú /ˈbˠalʲuː/ 'gathering'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''iúi'''
| /uː/
| ciúin /cuːnʲ/ 'quiet', inniúil /ˈɪnʲuːlʲ/ 'able, fit'
|-
| rowspan=5 | '''o'''
| rowspan=4 | stressed
| /ɔ/
| post /pˠɔsˠt̪ˠ/ 'post'
|-
| /ʊ/ before '''n, m'''
| Donncha /ˈd̪ˠʊn̪əxə/ (man's name), cromóg /ˈkɾˠʊmˠoːg/ 'hooked nose'
|-
| /oː/ before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, rr'''
| bord /bˠoːɾˠd̪ˠ/ 'table', orlach /ˈoːɾˠɫ̪əx/ 'inch'<br />poll /pˠoːɫ̪/ 'hole', corr /koːɾˠ/ 'odd'
|-
| /uː/ before syllable-final '''nn'''<br />before word-final '''m, ng'''
| fonn /fˠuːn̪ˠ/ 'desire, inclination'<br />trom /t̪ˠɾˠuːmˠ/ 'heavy', long /ɫ̪uːŋg/ 'ship'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| mo /mˠə/ 'my', cothrom /ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ/ 'equal'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ó'''
| /oː/
| póg /pˠoːg/ 'kiss', armónach /ˈaɾˠəmˠoːn̪əx/ 'harmonic'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''obh(a(i)), odh(a(i)), ogh(a(i))'''
| /au/
| lobhar /ɫ̪auɾˠ/ 'leper', bodhar /bˠauɾˠ/ 'deaf', rogha /ɾˠau/ 'choice'
|-
| rowspan=7 | '''oi'''
| rowspan=6 | stressed
| /ɛ/
| scoil /sˠkɛlʲ/ 'school', troid /t̪ˠɾˠɛdʲ/ 'fight' (imper.), toitín /ˈt̪ˠɛtʲiːnʲ/ 'cigarette', oibre /ˈɛbʲɾʲə/ 'work' (gen.), thoir /hɛɾʲ/ 'in the east', cloiche /ˈkɫ̪ɛhə/ 'stone' (gen.)
|-
| /ɔ/ before '''s, cht, rs, rt, rth'''
| cois /kɔʃ/ 'foot' (dat.), cloisfidh /ˈkɫ̪ɔʃiː/ 'will hear', boicht /bˠɔxtʲ/ 'poor' (gen. sg. masc.), doirse /ˈd̪ɔɾˠʃə/ 'doors', goirt /gɔɾˠtʲ/ 'salty', oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ 'east'
|-
| /ɪ/ next to '''n, m, mh''' 
| anois /əˈn̪ˠɪʃ/ 'now', gloine /ˈgɫ̪ɪnʲə/ 'glass', cnoic /kn̪ˠɪc/ 'hills', roimh /ɾˠɪvʲ/ 'before', coimeád /ˈkɪmʲaːd̪ˠ/ 'keep' (imper.), loinge /ˈɫ̪ɪɲɟə/ 'ship' (gen.) 
|-
| /ai/ before syllable-final '''ll''' 
| coill /kailʲ/ 'forest, woods', coillte /ˈkailʲtʲə/ 'forests'
|-
| /iː/ before syllable-final '''nn''' and word-final '''m''' 
| foinn /fˠiːnʲ/ 'wish' (gen.), droim /d̪ˠɾˠiːmʲ/ 'back'
|-
| /oː/ before '''rl, rn, rd''' 
| coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠnʲeːɫ̪/ 'corner', oird /oːɾˠdʲ/ 'sledgehammers' 
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| éadroime /eːdrəmʲə/ 'lightness' 
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ói'''
| /oː/
| móin /mˠoːnʲ/ 'sod, turf', bádóir /ˈbˠaːd̪ˠoːrʲ/ 'boatman'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''oí'''
| /iː/
| croíleacán /ˈkɾˠiːlʲəkaːn̪ˠ/ 'core'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''oidh(i/ea), oigh(i/ea)''' 
| /ai/
| oidhre /airʲə/ 'heir', loighic /ɫ̪aic/ 'logic'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''oío'''
| /iː/
| croíonna /ˈkɾˠiːn̪ˠə/ 'hearts'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''omh(a(i))'''
| /oː/
| tomhail /t̪ˠoːlʲ/ 'consume' (imper.), Domhnach /ˈd̪ˠoːn̪ˠəx/ 'Sunday'
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''u'''
| rowspan=3 | stressed
| /ʊ/
| dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ 'black'
|-
| /ɔ/ in English loanwords, corresponds to /ʌ/ 
| bus /bˠɔsˠ/, club /kɫ̪ɔbˠ/
|-
| /uː/ before '''rl, rn, rd''' 
| burla /ˈbˠuːɾˠɫ̪ə/ 'bundle', murnán /ˈmˠuːɾˠn̪ˠaːn̪ˠ/ 'ankle', urlár /ˈuːɾˠɫ̪aːɾˠ/ 'floor'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| agus /ˈagəs/ 'and'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ú'''
| /uː/
| tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ 'beginning'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ua'''
| /uə/
| fuar /fˠuəɾˠ/ 'cold'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''uai'''
| /uə/
| fuair /fˠuəɾʲ/ 'got'
|-
| rowspan=5 | '''ui'''
| rowspan=4 | stressed
| /ɪ/
| duine /ˈd̪ˠɪnʲə/ 'person'
|-
| /ʊ/ before '''cht, rs, rt''' 
| tuirseach /ˈt̪ˠʊɾˠʃəx/ 'tired', cluichte /ˈkɫ̪ʊxtʲə/ 'harassment' (gen.)
|-
| /iː/ before syllable-final '''ll, nn'''<br />before word-final '''m'''
| tuillteanach /ˈt̪ˠiːlʲtʲən̪ˠəx/ 'deserving', puinn /pˠiːnʲ/ 'much'<br />suim /sˠiːmʲ/ 'interest'
|-
| /uː/ before '''rl, rn, rd''' 
| duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/ 'stony beach', tuirne /ˈt̪ˠuːɾˠnʲə/ 'spinning wheel'
|-
| unstressed
| /ə/
| aguisín /ˈagəʃiːnʲ/ 'addition'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''úi'''
| /uː/
| súil /suːlʲ/ 'eye', cosúil /ˈkɔsˠuːlʲ/ 'like, resembling'
|-
| colspan=2 | '''uí'''
| /iː/
| buígh /bˠiːj/ 'turn yellow' (imper.)
|-
| colspan=2 | '''uío'''
| /iː/
| buíon /bˠiːn̪ˠ/ 'band, troop'
|}
 
;Observations
*When '''e''', '''é''', '''i''', or '''í''' come after or before a consonant, they make the consonant slender.
*Between a consonant and a vowel, or vice-versa, '''e''' and '''i''' are usually silent, and just indicate that the adjacent consonants are slender. However, they may be pronounced in the digraphs '''ei''', '''ia''', '''io''', '''oi''', '''ui'''.
*The accented letters '''é''' and '''í''' are always pronounced.
*In [[digraph]]s and [[trigraph]]s containing a vowel with an [[acute accent]] (known in Irish as a ''fada'' or ''síneadh fada''), only the accented vowel is normally pronounced.
 
==Epenthetic (inserted) vowel==
 
In a sequence of short vowel + /l, r, n/ + [[labial consonant|labial]] or [[velar consonant]] an unwritten /ə/ gets pronounced between the /l, r, n/ and the following consonant:
 
*gorm /ˈgɔɾˠəmˠ/ 'blue'
*dearg /ˈdʲaɾˠəg/ 'red'
*dorcha /ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəxə/ 'dark'
*ainm /ˈanʲəmʲ/ 'name'
*seanchaí /ˈʃan̪ˠəxiː/ 'storyteller'
*leanbh /ˈlʲan̪ˠəw/ 'child'
*colm /ˈkɔɫ̪əm/ 'dove'
 
There is no epenthesis before [[phonation|voiceless]] [[stop consonant|stops]] or after long [[vowel]]s and [[diphthong]]s:
*corp /kɔɾˠpˠ/ 'body'
*olc /ɔɫ̪k/ 'bad'
*téarma /tʲeːɾˠmˠə/ 'term'
*dualgas /ˈd̪ˠuəɫ̪gəsˠ/ 'duty'
 
==Special pronunciations in verb forms==
 
In [[verb]] forms some letters and letter combinations are pronounced differently from elsewhere.
 
In the [[imperfect]], [[conditional]], and [[imperative]], ''-dh'' is pronounced /tʲ/ before a pronoun beginning with ''s-'':
*mholadh sé /ˈwɔɫ̪ətʲ ʃeː/ 'he used to praise'
*bheannódh sibh /ˈvʲan̪ˠoːtʲ ʃɪvʲ/ 'you (pl.) would bless'
*osclaíodh sí /ˈɔsˠkɫ̪iːtʲ ʃiː/ 'let her open'
 
Otherwise it is pronounced /x/:
*mholadh an buachaill /ˈwɔɫ̪əx ə ˈbˠuəxəlʲ/ 'the boy used to praise'
*bheannódh na cailíní /ˈvʲanoːx n̪ˠə ˈkalʲiːnʲiː/ 'the girls would bless'
*osclaíodh Siobhán /ˈɔsˠkɫ̪iːx ˈʃʊwaːn̪ˠ/ 'let Siobhán open'
 
In the preterite impersonal, ''-dh'' is pronounced /w/:
*moladh é /ˈmˠɔɫ̪əw eː/ 'he was praised'
*beannaíodh na cailíní /ˈbʲan̪iːw nə ˈkalʲiːnʲiː/ 'the girls were blessed'
 
''-(a)idh'' and ''-(a)igh'' are pronounced /ə/ before a pronoun, otherwise /iː/:
*molfaidh mé /ˈmˠɔɫ̪hə mʲeː/ 'I will praise'
*molfaidh Seán /ˈmˠɔɫ̪hiː ʃaːn/ 'Seán will praise'
*bheannaigh mé /ˈvʲan̪ˠə mʲeː/ 'I blessed'
*bheannaigh Seán /ˈvʲan̪ˠiː ʃaːn/ 'Seán blessed'
 
In the [[future tense|future]] and conditional, ''f'' (broad or slender) has the following effects:
#After vowels and sonorants (/ɫ̪ lʲ mˠ mʲ n̪ˠ nʲ ɾˠ ɾʲ/) it is pronounced /h/:
#*molfaidh /ˈmˠɔɫ̪hiː/ 'will praise'
#*dhófadh /ˈɣoːhəx/ 'would burn'
#*déarfaidh /ˈdʲeːɾˠhiː/ 'will say'
#It makes a voiced obstruent (/bˠ bʲ vʲ d̪ˠ g/) or /w/ voiceless:
#*scuabfadh /ˈsˠkuəpəx/ 'would sweep'
#*goidfidh /ˈgɛtʲiː/ 'will steal'
#*leagfadh /ˈlʲakəx/ 'would lay'
#*scríobhfaidh /ˈʃcɾʲiːfˠiː/ 'will write'
#*shnámhfadh /ˈhn̪ˠaːfˠəx/ 'would swim'
#It is silent after a voicless obstruent (/k c x ç pˠ pʲ  sˠ ʃ t̪ˠ tʲ/)
#*brisfidh /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃiː/ 'will break'
#*ghlacfadh /ˈɣɫ̪akəx/ 'would accept'
#But in the future and conditional impersonal ''f'' is often /fˠ, fʲ/
#*molfar /ˈmˠɔɫ̪fˠəɾˠ/ 'one will praise'
#*dhófaí /ˈɣoːfˠiː/ 'one would burn'
#*scuabfar /ˈsˠkuəbˠfˠəɾˠ/ 'one will sweep'
#*brisfear /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃfʲəɾˠ/ 'one will break'
#In the [[past participle]] ''th'' (also ''t'' after ''d'') is silent but makes a voiced obstruent voiceless:
#*scuabtha /ˈsˠkuəpˠə/ 'swept'
#*troidte /ˈt̪ˠɾˠɛtʲə/ 'fought'
#*ruaigthe /ˈɾˠuəcə/ 'chased'
 
==References==
*Ó Baoill DP (1986) ''Lárchanúint don Ghaeilge''. Dublin: The Linguistics Institute of Ireland. ISBN 0946452067.
*Ó Siadhail M (1988) ''Learning Irish''. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300042248.

Latest revision as of 17:39, 4 March 2021


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