CZ Talk:Wiki-converting: Difference between revisions

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imported>Stephen Ewen
(I thought I would test using http://diberri.dyndns.org/wikipedia/html2wiki with an old paper - as you can see, the results are BAD, BAD.)
 
imported>Stephen Ewen
(Tests)
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I thought I would test using http://diberri.dyndns.org/wikipedia/html2wiki with an old paper - as you can see, the results are BAD, BAD. [[User:Stephen Ewen|Stephen Ewen]] 13:41, 29 December 2007 (CST)
Tests using:  


# Test One: [[CZ_Talk:Wiki-converting/Test One|http://diberri.dyndns.org/wikipedia/html2wiki after saving to HTML from MS Word]].


----
# Test Two: [[CZ_Talk:Wiki-converting/Test Two|http://diberri.dyndns.org/wikipedia/html2wiki after saving to HTML from OpenOffice]].


<div class="Section1">
# Test Three: [[CZ_Talk:Wiki-converting/Test Three|Using Wiki2Text export from OpenOffice]].


<center>'''<font color="#272600">Introduction</font>'''</center>
# Test Four: [[CZ_Talk:Wiki-converting/Test Three|Using Odt2Wiki export from OpenOffice]].
 
<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''''''</span></center>
 
<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''''''</span></center>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">This paper discusses three main theories in the field of adult education, cognitivism/ constructivism, phenomenography, and what is broadly called “the socio-cultural perspective.” Firstly, I summarize these three theories.Secondly, I compare and contrast them, while offering preliminary critiques of them.Finally, I will line key aspects of the three theories to my prior learning in anthropology, since many anthropological theories have profound correlates to the three theories of this study.</font></span>
 
<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''''''</span></center>
 
<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''''''</span></center>
 
<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''''''</span></center>
 
<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''<font color="#272600">Cognitivism/Constructivism''''</font>'''</span></center>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">“Viability” and “Scheme Theory”</font></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Cognitivism-constructivism is a dualistic theory which largely separates persons from their environment, and understands learning and does research within that framework.According to van Glasserfield, the first step for understanding learning in the theory is </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">motivation</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">, which stems from his concept of “viability,”</font></font></span>''</span>[#_ftn1 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[1]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"> which I will explain more clearly as </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">imminent existential viability</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">. </font></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Imminent existential viability means that if “knowledge” is to be acquired by epistemic agents, it must appear to learners as useful and needed within the environs and systems in which they immediately find themselves.Without an underlying impetus of imminent existential viability, epistemic agents simply lack the requisite motivation needed to learn and form knowledge bases.Lacking it, </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">What’s the point? </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">may be most learners’ vocalization or unspoken thought to learning situations.</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"> </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">It is only after that question has been satisfied that learning can occur and knowledge bases can be formed. </font></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">But how are the contents of knowledge bases formed in cognitivism-constructivism?For Fleck, as well as for Winn and Snyder and other cognitivist-constructivists, the contents of knowledge bases are formed through the adaptation of what they call “schemes” or “<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold">templates</span>.”The adaptation is a process-oriented resolution of problems that are able to be personalized, which result in the re-configuration of mental schemata.This re-configuration takes places in a series of five interconnected mental “steps,” </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">assimilation</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">, </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">error</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">, </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">perturbation</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">, </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">accommodation</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">, and </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">equilibrium</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">.</font></font></span>''</span>[#_ftn2 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[2]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"> Collectively, the process is </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">scheme theory</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">.This leads to understanding the epistemology and ontology of cognitivism-constructivism.</font></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Epistemology and Ontology of Cognitivism-Constructivism</font></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">According to the vein of cognitivist-constructivists, including van Glasserfield, their theory represents a much sought-after </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Kuhnian paradigm shift </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">in epistemology.By this, van Glasserfield has in mind a shift where the “traditional” view of epistemology is largely discarded.For van Glasserfield, this means moving away from a theory of knowing that says epistemic agents can “know” by reason of their having undertaken supposed “observer-independent” and “world-independent” acquisitions of knowledge.To make contrast this traditional view, Von Glasserfield quotes Fleck, who von Glasserfield cites as a fore-thinker of Kuhn.Fleck states, “The content of our knowledge must be considered to be the free creation of our culture.”Under this creation, realities are formed for given individuals bytheir selection of what constitutes problems and their range of solutions.Once the knowledge bases are formed, they comprise for Fleck “a traditional myth,”</font></font></span>''</span>[#_ftn3 <span style="mso-bookmark: C000TKN03OG6ZGlasersfeldECCoKaT1989A2"><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[3]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: C000TKN03OG6ZGlasersfeldECCoKaT1989A2"><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"> or for Jakob von Uexkьll “subjective realities” that produce “self-generated environment[s]” for individuals.</font></font></span>''</span></span>[#_ftn4 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[4]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"></font></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Hence, in cognitivism-constructivism, acquisitions and expositions of Universal or ultimate truth are impossible, since epistemic agents are situated under the impetuses of imminent viability within various existential time-space demands.Von Glasserfield therefore states that “knowledge” can never be an “objective representation of an observer-independent world”—the very type of “knowledge” that he says the mainstream of Western epistemology, and education, has so long sought to discover, expound, and transmit.Knowledge bases and identity formations in cognitivism-constructivism total up to formative subjective realities that enable epistemic agents to adapt and “succeed” within their immediate environ and society,</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"></span>[#_ftn5 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TKN03SGUCGlasersfeldECCoKaT1989A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[5]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TKN03SGUCGlasersfeldECCoKaT1989A2">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"> even a globalized one.</font></font></span>''</span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"></font></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Summary<br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /><br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /></font></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Thus, we may summarize plainly cognitivism/constructivism by saying that </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">people in concrete situations go through a five-step mental template process to solve their perceived problems for the purpose of adapting within their immediate environs.They thereby form non-ultimate and in-flux knowledge bases and identities.</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''<font color="#272600">Phenomenography<br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /><br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /></font>'''</span></center>
 
<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''''''</span></center>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<font color="#272600">“Variation”</font>'''''</span>
 
<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''''''''''</span></center>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Ference Marton, one of phenomenography theoretical founders and ardent spokespersons, broadly defines “knowledge” as “experience.”</font></span>[#_ftn6 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU033NAHMartonFCESRoR0000A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[6]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">At base of his assertion is phenomenography’s very evident monism—phenomenographers’ insistence that there is no person-world separation.At core of the theoretical framework of phenomenography is ''variation''.</font></span>[#_ftn7 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU03CVLIMartonFVmes1999A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[7]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600"> In response, phenomenographers seek to “empirically” discover these variations and utilize them to improve learning in classrooms. </font></span>
 
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<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<font color="#272600">Epistemology and Research Methodology<br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /><br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /></font>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Also central for phenomenographers are four key components, </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">discernment, capability, </font></font></span>''''<font color="#272600">description</font>''<font color="#272600">, and </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">outcome space.</font></font></span>'''''<font color="#272600"></font>'''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">The first, </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">discernment, </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">means learning “ways of experiencing” a variety of phenomenon, while the second, </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">capabilities, </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">are defined quite traditionally.</font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">Third is ''description'', </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">which means that </font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">the experiencing of a phenomenon produces a finite quantity of internally-related hierarchical categories of ordered descriptions of variation that are in relation to antecedent criteria.Fifth is </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU03CQ2MMartonFCESRoR0000A2">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">the </font></font></span>''</span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU03CQ2MMartonFCESRoR0000A2">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">outcome space. </font></font></span>''</span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU03CQ2MMartonFCESRoR0000A2">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">In this, </font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">the varied experiences, perceptions, understandings, terms, etc., are placed into logically related categories. This </font></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU03CQ2MMartonFCESRoR0000A2">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">comprises the “data” of phenomenographers, from which t</font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">hey produce a unified account. Since the focus of their studies is collectives, individual voices are minimized, and go so far as to deliberately merge the voices of the collective of research subjects to report a “collective mind.”</font></span></span>[#_ftn8 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU03CQ2MMartonFCESRoR0000A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[8]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600"> </font></span>
 
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<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<font color="#272600">Summary</font>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Thus, a simple summary of phenomenography is that </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">phenomenography is primarily a research paradigm that melds collectives of people with their experiences to better understand variations within those same collectives to help improve teaching and learning.</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''<font color="#272600">Socio-Cultural Perspective</font>'''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span></center>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">“Communities of Practice”—“Situated Learning”</font></font></span>'''''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">At the fore of the monistic socio-cultural perspective is the idea of self-organizing and co-participatory systems of “communities of practice.”Inherent in this concept is the idea that learning is foremost a social endeavor, so it comes principally from our engagement in whatever our day-to-day activities may be.</font></font></span></span>[#_ftn9 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU03V0ITWengerECoPLMaI1998A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[9]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"> This concept is neatly packaged as “situated learning.”</font></font></span></span>[#_ftn10 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU03VA84WengerECoPLMaI1998A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[10]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"></font></font></span></span>
 
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<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">“Dynamic Interactivity” and “Praxis”</font></font></span>'''''</span>
 
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<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">In situated learning, epistemic agents are within an apparent dialectic.On the one hand, they interact with their total experienced social world (culture, language, religion, ritual, ethics and laws, taboos, relationships, capabilities, routines, etc.), while on the other, that same social world interacts with them.Yet the two are in no dialectic at all, but are dynamically interactive.As a result, “praxis”—very simply, learning to do—develops by reason of ever increasing and ever in flux community interaction.</font></font></span></span>[#_ftn11 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU041KGAWengerECoPLMaI1998A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[11]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"> “Knowledge” becomes a form of communal property.</font></font></span></span>[#_ftn12 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU03XN8FSmithMKCoP2004A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[12]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Interestingly, the socio-cultural perspective does not considerably concern itself with whatever mental processes may be going on inside the heads of individuals.It is intent to focus on learning as occurring “in context.”</font></font></span></span>[#_ftn13 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU042XG7WengerECoPLMaI1998A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[13]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"></font></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Summary</font></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">While Wenger is very clear to point out that communities of practice abound in our lives,</font></font></span></span>[#_ftn14 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJV05UNXGWengerECopLMaI1988A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[14]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"> a very simple definition of the socio-cultural perspective is “learning at work,” a phrase made popular by many adult educationalists.</font></font></span></span>
 
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<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span>
 
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<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Comparing and Contrasting the Three Theories</font></font></span>'''</span></center>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span>
 
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<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Before I compare and contrast numerous general themes within the three theories, a special focus exclusively comparing </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Marton’s phenomenography as presented in ''Variatio est mater studorium ''</font></font></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">with the socio-cultural perspective and cognitivism/constructivism is well in order.This is so because there are striking correlates in </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Variatio </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">to the two theories not found as clearly elsewhere.</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">I will deal with </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Marton and the socio-cultural perspective, and Marton and Cognitivism/Constructivism, in order.</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Marton and the Socio-cultural Perspective</font></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span>'''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Marton's guding question in ''Variatio ''is, "How can we enable the new generation to participate in the largely unknown practices of tomorrow by means of letting them participate in the known and firmly situated practices of today.”Undergirding this question is his apparently exclusively phenomenographic “view of learning as a by-product of participation in practices.”</font></span>[#_ftn15 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SA8QMartonFVmes1999A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[15]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Yet the view is markedly close to the socio-cultural approach.</font></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Flowing from this is Marton’s </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">allowance for “learning communities,” which is strikingly compatible with the socio-cultural perspective’s emphasis on “communities of practice.”For Marton, “learning communities” “</font></font></span><font color="#272600">implies an interest in considering learning as a product—or a byproduct—of participation in social practices.”A "learning community" is akin to the environment of an epistemic agent, for Marton.He argues that everyone is part of a learning community whether they perceive it as such or not.As for learning itself, Marton says it “takes place through changes in the system—how people do things together, how they handle their tools, how they more and more become parts of the particular context and how this particular context becomes more and more their own.”</font></span>[#_ftn16 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[16]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600"> This, too, </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">is strikingly compatible with the socio-cultural perspective.</font></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Marton and Cognitivism/Constructivism</font></font></span>'''''</span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span>'''''</span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Another of Marton’s guiding questions in </font></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Variatio</font></font></span>''<font color="#272600"> is, “When trying to handle one situation, a novel situation, how can we make use of what we have learned earlier, in another situation.”Marton further states that "there is no error-free learning when it comes to learning to discern.”He goes on to argue that “it is not just that practice is necessary and learners make mistakes occasionally;” instead, “the fact is that practice without ‘mistakes’ does not yield learning.”Error for Marton “is thus not a by-product of practice but a necessary constitutive element of learning to discern.”</font></span></span>[#_ftn17 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SU26MartonFVmes1999A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[17]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">When an epistemic agent seeks to handle a “novel situation” and makes “errors” in the process—this sounds very much like encroaching “perturbation.” Recall that perturbation is a key component of </font></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">cognitivism-constructivism’s scheme theory.Moreover, </font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">making use of things learned prior sounds very much like approaching them with a “scheme” we already have set.</font></span></span>[#_ftn18 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04S6YHMartonFVmes1999A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[18]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">One of Marton’s more purely phenomenographic statements is that when an epistemic agent encounters a “novel situation,” it is experienced “uniquely.”However, he is fuzzy on whether he means that this experience-focus is undergone by individuals, people who comprise a group, or both.</font></span></span>[#_ftn19 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[19]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Still, learning-acts for Marton result from our reactions to the appearance of “how things [subjectively] appear to us.”Marton says this is true for three main reasons.One is the practical constraints of conception, i.e., the brain cannot focus on the total sum of aspects inherent in a novel situation.Two, there would be no variations in outcomes to student learning when approached with the same novel situation, and experience forces observers to say that such variations are the case.</font></span></span>[#_ftn20 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[20]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Three, and most radical, "there would be no meaning" because meaning emanates from "the figure ground structure of our awareness."</font></span></span>[#_ftn21 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[21]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Here again, Marton is venturing into, or at least converging with, key aspects of </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">cognitivism/constructivism.One, if the brain cannot </font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">focus on the total sum of aspects inherent in a novel situation, it follows that the brain must operate by a type of confining, hard-wired mental schemata.Such is a feature of </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">cognitivism/constructivism’s scheme theory, though no cognitivist who is also a constructivist that I have read is apt to state it in so stark of terms</font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">.Two, if meaning emanates from "the figure ground structure of our awareness," it similarly follows that our awareness is connected with some type of confining, hard-wired mental schemata of our brains.Supporting this is the general postulate of phenomenography that the sum total of all experiences to phenomenon is ''limited''.Limited ''by what'', if not by some type of confining, hard-wired mental schemata in our brains?</font></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">For both Marton and other phenomenographers, the most crucial aspect of learning is “discernment.” In Marton’s conception of the term, he means that characteristics of the “physical, cultural, symbolic, or sensuous world, are seen or sensed by a learner solely against the backdrop of his or her previous experiences of something more or less different.” “Discernment or experience is always the discernment of variation or the experience of difference.</font><font color="#272600">”</font></span>[#_ftn22 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SDW7MartonFVmes1999A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[22]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Moreover, “learning to discern is contingent on experiencing variation” and “the dimensions corresponding to the aspects of the object of learning in which variation could be experienced simultaneously define the space of learning.”</font></span>[#_ftn23 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SG2IMartonFVmes1999A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[23]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Here, and probably without even realizing it, Marton presents a stark dualism.Marton is arguing for little other than what dualist eighteenth century anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss called “binary oppositions.”</font></span>[#_ftn24 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU04TSXNL&#x439;viStrausCAJVoTaT1988A2"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SME1MartonFVmes1999A1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[24]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SME1MartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">To Levi-Strauss, one could not understand one given thing except by referential contrast to its opposite or, to again use Marton’s words, “against the backdrop of his or her previous experiences of something more or less different.”One cannot understand the concept ''or experience'' of light except that one understands and has experienced darkness.One can only appreciate one particular color if it can be contrasted with others.For non-concrete matters such as lying and truth-telling, Marton goes so far as to say that the one would cease to conceptually exist without the opposite other.</font></span></span>[#_ftn25 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SME1MartonFVmes1999A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[25]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">He further states, “As a matter of fact, every phenomenon, every statement about the world appears, is experienced, sensed, understood, against the tacit background of alternative appearances [variations] of the same phenomenon or statement and against the tacit background of alternative phenomena [concrete experiences] or alternative statements [experiences resulting from abstractive thought].”</font></span>[#_ftn26 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SQ7XMartonFVmes1999A2"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SQ7XMartonFVmes1999A1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[26]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SQ7XMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">While this may be a core essence of Marton’s phenomenography, </font></span><font color="#272600">my point is that it is also a dualism that is requisite to even the most basic mental processes.Such dualism would appear to be much more the purveyance of constrctivism/cognitivism than of phenomenography.Many of Marton’s words </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">might just as well have been written by ardent adherents of the socio-cultural and </font></font></span><font color="#272600">constrctivist/cognitivist </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">perspectives.</font></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Dualism/Monism</font></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">On a more general level, and as mentioned above, cognitivism/constructivism is a dualistic philosophy, while </font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">phenomenography and the socio-cultural perspectives are monistic.</font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Cognitivism/constructivism considers epistemic agents and the objects of their learning to be separate entities, while </font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">phenomenography considers agent-object separations to be false.Along with the socio-cultural perspective, phenomenography replaces “object” with “environment.”Related, c</font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">ognitivism/constructivism is a qualitatively-based philosophy, while </font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">phenomenography and the socio-cultural perspectives are </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">quantitatively-based</font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">.</font></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<font color="#272600">Individual/Collective</font>'''''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"></font></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''''''''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">The focus of </font></font></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">cognitivists/constructivists is on what goes on “inside the heads” of </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">individual </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">epistemic agents while they are in interaction with their environments.Research in </font></font></span>''<font color="#272600">phenomenography does not focus on mental processes, except when certain </font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">categories are used by their collective of research subjects to describe their internal happenings in conjunction with their experiencing of various phenomena. </font></font></span><font color="#272600">Nor does phenomenography focus on the acquisition of knowledge as a separate object, but instead argues that the varied experience of groups ''is ''knowledge.The socio-cultural perspective does not go as far, but instead postulates that knowledge is praxis which is acquired during social (group) interactions.</font></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">In cognitivistm/constructivistm, applied scheme theory in interaction with epistemic agents’ environs explicates learning.P</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">henomenography </font></font></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">dispenses with scheme theory, while </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Wenger’s </font></font></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">socio-cultural perspective states that the two are not incompatible.</font></font></span>''</span>[#_ftn27 <span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU04D7RSWengerECoPLMaI1998A2"><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[27]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">In </font></font></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">cognitivistm/constructivistm and the socio-cultural perspective, </font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">researchers seek to report their findings from their own perceptions of them as individual researchers, while in phenomenography, researchers give primacy to the descriptions of their researched group.Phenomenographers can thus fall into the trap of ''reification''—they represent human beings as deprived of personal qualities or individuality.</font></font></span></span>[#_ftn28 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU048LHGWengerECoPLMaI1998A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[28]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></font></span></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">“Truth”</font></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"></font></span>'''''</span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Acquisitions and expositions of Universal or ultimate truth are impossible in all three theories, although it appears that cognitivistm/constructivistm’s postulates concerning scheme theory, for instance, contradict this assumption.</font></font></span>''</span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-fareast-language: SV"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">All three postulate themselves as epistemic paradigm shifts.</font></font></span></span>
 
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<center><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''<font color="#272600">Making Personal Connections</font>'''</span></center>
 
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<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<font color="#272600">Structure-Functionalism and Cognitivism/Constructionism</font>'''''</span>
 
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<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Early anthropological theories provide support to Cognitivism/Constructionism’s notions of mental schemes or templates.Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955) was an early theorist of structure-functionalism.His quest was to discover universals within cultures, and he pointed out features in widely disparate societies that were remarkably similar.One of his main foci was on kinship structures, and most importantly, the “rules” whereby kinship patterning operated.</font></span>[#_ftn29 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJT028CEUMcGeeJRATAIH2000A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[29]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600"> While anthropologists such as Eric Wolf would be quick to explain the correlates by denying societies have been interactively separate during recorded history,</font></span>[#_ftn30 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJT028HPMWolfEREatPWH1982A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[30]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600"> Radcliffe-Brown’s work was done among people groups who, at the time of his studies, were unaware of the workings, and in some cases even the existence, of the contrastive societies on which Radcliffe-Brown focused.</font></span>[#_ftn31 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJT028XNPMcGeeJRATAIH2000A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[31]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"></span>
 
<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">Later, Claude Levi-Strauss, discussed some earlier, took up the anthropological vogue of his time to discover Universals among disparate human societies.Levi-Strauss’s studies looked principally at mythologies, taboos, and kinship, but ultimately these foci led him to focus on language, particularly description and naming.Through his focal points, he sought ultimately to find certain ''minimal units of meaning'', intimately connected to ''learning'', within the cultures he studied.He theorized that meaning units had relations to, and could only be understood by reference to, what he called “binary opposites”—things that were in contrastive opposition to their counterparts.For Levi-Strauss, to understand the Universal acquisition processes of epistemic agents, one must uncover the units of meaning contained in binary opposites.To Levi-Strauss, humans categorized the world the way they do because the human mind is ''hard-wired ''to do so; hence, category descriptions are Universal.Levi-Strauss thought these categories could be “scientificized.”His intellectual project was to show how all humans were the same in these certain regards.In the end, Levi-Strauss was studying his own form of scheme theory that is not unlike congnitivists/constructivist’s notion of it. As a point of departure from all three theories, Levi-Strauss viewed cultures and languages as isolated and unchanging, which is incompatible with all three learning theories herein discussed. Still, given the variable of change in history, one may still find his theory, which lends support chiefly to cognitivism/constructionism, but also on what should already be evident points on phenomenography, e.g., reporting a collective mind, useful.</font></span>
 
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<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1">'''''<font color="#272600">One Phenomenographer-Anthropologist</font>'''''</span>
 
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<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><font color="#272600">For the phenomenographic approach, the fieldwork findings of M.E. Combs-Schilling are remarkable.Combs-Schilling is a contemporary anthropologist who phenomenographically researched the experiences of Moroccans under the Moroccan monarchy.She reported upon Moroccans as a collective.</font></span>[#_ftn32 <span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TKN033MZ4CombsSchilMESPISa1989A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#272600"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">[32]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJS04Q9XMMartonFVmes1999A1"></span>
 
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<center>'''<font color="#272600">Addendum<br />''Scheme Theory Explained''</font>'''</center>
 
''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#272600"></font></span>''
 
# <font color="#272600">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Assimilation.</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">The vein of cognitivist-constructivists argue that the reconfiguration process from an antecedent state of equilibrium entails, first, assimilation, sometimes called “bottom up processing.”When a person is accustomed under the force of imminent viability to one successful way of knowing and doing or approaching a familiar object, they can be said to have been assimilated to the same.This </font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">assimilation </font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">comprises the base of </font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">a pattern,</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"> or </font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">scheme</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">.However, once a person is assimilated to one successful way of approaching a familiar object—once they have a particular scheme set in place—it is inevitable that they will encounter prior un-encountered objects.Said plainly, they will “have to learn new things.”<br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /><br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /></font></span>''</font>
# <font color="#272600">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Error.</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">For cognitivist-constructivists, the person will approach prior un-encountered objects with their prior formed scheme—their prior learned assimilated pattern of knowing or doing or approaching.The person will seek to react to prior un-encountered objects by calling up a prior formed scheme, but will not always do so successfully unless the scheme he or she is approaching the un-encountered object with is similar enough to an antecedent object he or she is familiar with.When it is not, it is inevitable that </font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">error </font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">occurs.Simply put, “mistakes happen.”<br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /><br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /></font></span>''</font>
# <font color="#272600">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Perturbation.</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Error, while seeking to successfully know or do or approach a prior un-encountered object with a prior scheme, inevitably brings </font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">perturbation</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">.The person “fails” and experiences pain.Yet, because of perceived imminent viability, the pain is apt to be a motivational pain.The person is likely to “try again.”<br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /><br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /></font></span>''</font>
# <font color="#272600">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Accommodation.</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Ideally, this perturbation leads to </font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">accommodation</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">.The person “adjusts” or “changes” their scheme, their way of knowing or doing or approaching an object.</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">This is where learning occurs.</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Learners may exclaim, “Now I get it!”</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /><br style="mso-special-character: line-break" /></font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"></span>''</font>
# <font color="#272600">''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Equilibrium.</font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">Once learning (accommodation) has occurred, a person reaches </font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">equilibrium </font></span>''''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;">in relation to the prior un-encountered object.Success and the resolution of perturbation fuel the refreshed equilibrium.Having experienced this equilibrium, a person can now successfully and quite comfortably know and do or approach what was, to the epistemic agent, a prior un-encountered object within his or her environ.“I know this,” is likely the type of confident vocalization expressed by learners. </font></span>''[#_ftn33 <span style="mso-bookmark: C000TKN046PCOGlasersfeldECCoKaT1989A2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#272600"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"><font size="12.0pt">[33]</font></font></font></span></span></span></font></span></span></span>]''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font face="&quot;Times&quot;,&quot;serif&quot;"></font></span>''</font>
 
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<center>'''<font color="#272600">Bibliography</font>'''</center>
 
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<font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Combs-Schilling, M.E.''Sacred Performance: Islam, Sexuality and Sacrifice'' (New York: </span></font></font><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">Columbia University Press, 1989)</font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">.</font></font>
 
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<font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Lйvi-Strauss, Claude. ''"A Jivaro Version of Totem and Taboo"'', Lambek, Michael and Chorier, </span></font></font><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">Bйnйdicte (eds.), (Malden: Blackwell Publishers, 1988)</font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">.</font></font>
 
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<font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Marton, Ference."Cognosco Ergo Sum - Reflections on Reflections," ''Nordisk Pedagogik ''_____</span></font></font><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span>''<span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"> (Journal of Nordic Educational Research)</font></font></span>''<font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">.</font></font>
 
<font color="#272600"></font>
 
<font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">Marton, Ference. Online Article, "Phenomenography: Describing the World Around Us," </font></font><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">http://www.ped.gu.se/biorn/phgraph/misc/constr/phegraph.html.</font></font>
 
<font color="#272600"></font>
 
<font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Marton, Ference."Variatio Mater Est Studiorum," ''Key Note Address to the European ''</span></font></font><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span>''<span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI)</font></font></span>''<span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"> (Gцteborg, 1999)</font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">.</font></font>
 
<font color="#272600"></font>
 
<span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">McGee, </font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">John R. and Richard L. Warms,''Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History'' </span></font></font><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"> (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000)</font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">.</font></font>
 
<font color="#272600"></font>
 
<font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Smith, M. K. "Communities of Practice," ''The Encyclopedia of Informal Education'', </span></font></font><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">http://www.infed.org/biblio/communities_of_pratice.htm:14 Feb. 2004</font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">.</font></font>
 
<font color="#272600"></font>
 
<span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">Snyder </font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">W.D. and D. Winn, "Cognitive Perspectives in Psychology," in ''Handbook of Research ''</span></font></font><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span>''<span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">on Educational Communications and Technology</font></font></span>''<span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">, D. Jonassen (New York: Oxford </font></font></span><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">University Press, 1996)</font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">.</font></font>
 
<font color="#272600"></font>
 
<font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Von Glasersfeld, E."Cognition, Construction of Knowledge, and Teaching," ''SYNTHESE ''_____</span></font></font><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span>''<span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"> (Special Issue on Education)</font></font></span>''<span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"> (http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc/constructivism.<br /></font></font></span><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">html) 80, 1 (1989)</font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">.</font></font>
 
<font color="#272600"></font>
 
<font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Wenger, Entienne.''Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity'' (Cambridge: </span></font></font><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">Cambridge University Press, 1998)</font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">.</font></font>
 
<font color="#272600"></font>
 
<font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Wolf, Eric R.''Europe and the People Without History'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, </span></font></font><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="white"><font size="12.0pt">_____</font></font></span><span style="mso-no-proof: yes"><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">1982)</font></font></span><font color="#272600"><font size="12.0pt">.</font></font>
 
<font color="#272600"></font>
 
<font color="#272600"></font>
 
</div><div style="mso-element: footnote-list"><br clear="all" />
----
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref1 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[1]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TKN03KPDHGlasersfeldECCoKaT1989A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">E. von Glasersfeld, "Cognition, Construction of Knowledge, and Teaching," ''SYNTHESE (Special Issue on Education)'' (http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc/constructivism.html) 80, 1 (1989)</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 1.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref2 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[2]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]''<span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-language: SV; font-style: normal"><font color="#373700">I have outlined these in the Addendum.</font></span>''
 
</div><div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref3 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[3]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"> In </font><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TKN03OG6ZGlasersfeldECCoKaT1989A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">von Glasersfeld, "Cognition"</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 2.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref4 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[4]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"> Ibid.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref5 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[5]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"> Ibid, 3.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref6 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[6]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU033NAHMartonFCESRoR0000A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ference Marton, "Cognosco Ergo Sum - Reflections on Reflections," ''Nordisk Pedagogik (Journal of Nordic Educational Research)''</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 19.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref7 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[7]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU03CVLIMartonFVmes1999A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ference Marton, "Variatio Mater Est Studiorum," ''Key Note Address to the European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI)'' (Gцteborg, 1999)</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 1.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref8 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[8]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU03CQ2MMartonFCESRoR0000A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Marton, "Cognosco Ergo Sum - Reflections on Reflections"</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 32; </font><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU03DF3LMartonFPDtWAU0000A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ference Marton, Online Article, "Phenomenography: Describing the World Around Us," http://www.ped.gu.se/biorn/phgraph/misc/constr/<br /> phegraph.html:</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 13-14, 18.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref9 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[9]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU03V0ITWengerECoPLMaI1998A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Entienne Wenger, ''Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 3; </font><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU03ZYBWSmithMKCoP2004A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Smith, "Communities of Practice"</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 3. </font><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">M. K. Smith, "Communities of Practice," ''The Encyclopedia of Informal Education'', http://www.infed.org/biblio/communities_of_pratice.htm:14 Feb. 2004</span></font><font color="#373700">, 2.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref10 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[10]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU03VA84WengerECoPLMaI1998A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Wenger, ''Communities of Practice''</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 13.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref11 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[11]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"> Ibid, 49-50.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref12 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[12]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU03XN8FSmithMKCoP2004A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Smith, "Communities of Practice"</span></font></span><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU03XN8FSmithMKCoP2004A3"><font color="#373700">, 3-4.</font></span>
 
</div><div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref13 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[13]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU042XG7WengerECoPLMaI1998A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Wenger, ''Communities of Practice''</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 279-280.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn14" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref14 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font size="10.0pt">[14]</font></span></span></span></span>] Ibid, 10-11.
 
</div><div id="ftn15" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref15 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[15]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SA8QMartonFVmes1999A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Marton, "Variatio Mater Est Studiorum", 20</span></font></span><font color="#373700">.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn16" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref16 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[16]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ibid, 5</span></font><font color="#373700">.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn17" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref17 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[17]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SU26MartonFVmes1999A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ibid, 15-16</span></font></span><font color="#373700">.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn18" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref18 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[18]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04S6YHMartonFVmes1999A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ibid, 10</span></font></span><font color="#373700">.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn19" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref19 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[19]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ibid, 10-11</span></font><font color="#373700">.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn20" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref20 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[20]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"> This is a highly deft critique against "outcomes based education," in vogue in the U.S., CNMI (where I live and work), and elsewhere.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn21" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref21 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[21]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SBUEMartonFVmes1999A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ibid, 10-11</span></font></span><font color="#373700">.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn22" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref22 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[22]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SDW7MartonFVmes1999A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ibid, 11</span></font></span><font color="#373700">.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn23" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref23 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[23]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SG2IMartonFVmes1999A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ibid, 19</span></font></span><font color="#373700">.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn24" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref24 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[24]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"> See </font><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJU04TSXNL&#x439;viStrausCAJVoTaT1988A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Claude Lйvi-Strauss, ''"A Jivaro Version of Totem and Taboo"'', Lambek, Michael and Chorier, Bйnйdicte (eds.), (Malden: Blackwell Publishers, 1988)</span></font></span><font color="#373700">.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn25" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref25 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[25]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SME1MartonFVmes1999A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Marton, "Variatio Mater Est Studiorum", 11</span></font></span>
 
</div><div id="ftn26" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref26 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[26]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: P000TJS04SQ7XMartonFVmes1999A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ibid, 13</span></font></span><font color="#373700">.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn27" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref27 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[27]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJU04D7RSWengerECoPLMaI1998A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Wenger, ''Communities of Practice''</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 286.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn28" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref28 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[28]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"> <span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Ibid, </span>59-62.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn29" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref29 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[29]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJT028CEUMcGeeJRATAIH2000A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">John R. and Richard L. Warms McGee, ''Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History'' (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000)</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 81-90.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn30" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref30 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[30]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"> See </font><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TJT028HPMWolfEREatPWH1982A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">Eric R. Wolf, ''Europe and the People Without History'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982)</span></font></span><font color="#373700">.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn31" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref31 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[31]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<span style="mso-bookmark: C000TJT028XNPMcGeeJRATAIH2000A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">McGee, ''Anthropological Theory''</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 81-90.</font>
 
</div><div id="ftn32" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref32 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[32]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"> See </font><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TKN033MZ4CombsSchilMESPISa1989A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">M.E. Combs-Schilling, ''Sacred Performance: Islam, Sexuality and Sacrifice'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989)</span></font></span>
 
</div><div id="ftn33" style="mso-element: footnote">
 
[#_ftnref33 <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA"><font color="#373700"><font size="10.0pt">[33]</font></font></span></span></span></font></span>]<font color="#373700"> Cf. </font><span style="mso-bookmark: F000TKN046XDQWinnWDCPiP1996A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">W.D. Snyder Winn, D., "Cognitive Perspectives in Psychology," in ''Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology'', D. Jonassen (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996)</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 7-9; </font><span style="mso-bookmark: C000TKN046PCOGlasersfeldECCoKaT1989A3"><font color="#373700"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes">von Glasersfeld, "Cognition"</span></font></span><font color="#373700">, 6-8.</font>
 
</div></div>

Revision as of 15:16, 29 December 2007

Tests using:

  1. Test One: http://diberri.dyndns.org/wikipedia/html2wiki after saving to HTML from MS Word.
  1. Test Two: http://diberri.dyndns.org/wikipedia/html2wiki after saving to HTML from OpenOffice.
  1. Test Three: Using Wiki2Text export from OpenOffice.
  1. Test Four: Using Odt2Wiki export from OpenOffice.
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